Face Perception

Bruce and Young (1986)

Parallels Haxby's Modular Theory

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Harris et al. (2012)

STS showed increased activity with changes in expression, while the FFA showed increased activity to chamges in both expression and identity

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Haxby et al. (2001)

faces vs houses, overlapping activity in the temporal lobe. Taking voxels from the FFA showed no difference in face recognition.

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Grill-Spector et al. (2004)

Over half the activity from face recognition comes from outside the FFA.

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Calder and Young (2005)

Principle Component Analysis: model extracts and separates codes of facial characteristics - facial cues, face recognition phenomena

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Haxby et al. (2000)

Modular Theory, Inferior Occipital Gyrus - STS (Intraparietal Sulcus, Auditory Cortex, Amygdala, Insula and Limbic System), Lateral FFA (Anterior Temporal)

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Todorov et al. (2009)

Judgements of trustworthiness in 33-167ms, Consistent results, need little time to make judgement.

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Todorov et al. (2005)

2/3 US elections won by face rated more competent.

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Lewicki et al. (1986)

Told faces with long hair were more intelligent, later labelled other faces with long hair as more intelligent.

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Kramer and Ward (2010)

63 females rated on different traits, averaged 15 highest and lowest. Asked p's to pick which of two was highest on each trait, above chance accuracy.

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Sutherland et al. (2013)

1. Averages from 179 markers made on faces, created continua for each trait. Found correlation between position on the continua and p's ratings. 2. Factor analysis, found trustworthiness, dominance and youthful attractiveness.

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Oosterhof and Todorov (2008)

66 aged 20-30, 2 principle components in determining the characteristics of a face, trustworthiness and dominance.

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Blanz and Vetter (1999)

Generated 300 faces from computer model, rated for trustworthiness and dominance. Trustworthines = expression, Dominance = power, masculinity

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Fiske et al. (2007)

Social Psychology Hypothesis - warmth and competence used for evolutionary purposes in social evaluation. Warmth = trustworthiness, competence = dominance.

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Sutherland et al. (2014)

Trained computer network to sort 65 attributes into 3 traits - approachability, dominance and youthful attractiveness. Show model new face to test if it has learned the traits. High correlations between human ratings and network scores = simple task.

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Adolphs et al. (1998)

Amygdala damage effects judgement of faces. Unfamiliar faces judged as trustworthy and approachable - problems evaluating threat, lack of fear response.

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Riby and Hancock (2008)

P's shown social scene whilst wearing eye tracking device. P's with William's Syndrome looked longer than typical at faces, p's with Autism looked less than typical time looking at faces. No difference in overall time spent watching the scene.

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Yan et al. (2016)

Caucasian students made more errors sorting Chinese faces by expression and identity, and Chinese students made more errors sorting Caucasian faces.But still some cross-cultural agreement - other-race effect may not be as influential.

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Bereczkei et al. (2004)

Compared woman to pictures of potential husbands and adoptive father when younger. Found a resemblance between husband and wife and bigger between husband and father.

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Olson and Marshuetz (2005)

Showed p's pictures for 13 ms then 1000 ms, consistent judgements of attractiveness even though they claimed to have not seen the image in the first instance.

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Perret et al. (1999)

Used computer to mirror facial features, 60-70% rated symmetrical faces as more attractive. But the higher you rate yourself, the more likely you are to prefer symmetrical faces.

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Langlois and Roggman (1990)

Averaged 4, 8, 16 and 32 faces. The more faces included the more attractive they are rated.

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Perrett et al. (1994)

Average of the 15 most attractive faces rated more attractive than the average of 60 faces. Same results with Japanese faces - pan-cultural.

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Jones (1995)

Attractive female features signal youthful sexual maturity

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Thronhill & Gangestad (1993)

Attractive features signal god health and improved disease resistance.

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Kwart et al. (2012)

128 faces aged 20-89, younger faces were rated as more attractive and those who were rated more attractive were rated younger than their actual age.

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Kalick et al. (1998)

300 photos of adolescents compared attractive ratings to health records. No correlation but those more attractive were consistently rated as healthier.

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Zebrowitz and Rhodes (2004)

Re-analysed Kalick's study and found a moderate association between attractiveness at 12 years old and later health for faces below median attractiveness.

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Dion et al. (1972)

Attractive faces rated as having more desirable personality traits; higher occupational status, better marital and parental competence, and more social and professional happiness.

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Landy and Sigall (1974)

Male students rated essays with picture attached. Gave higher marks for the more attractive faces.

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Frieze et al. (1991)

Looked at past MBA students' careers, attractive men had higher salaries and over time both attractive men and women had higher salaries.

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Feingold (1992)

No actual relationship between attractiveness and personality, intelligence, dominance, self-esteem and mental health. Self-fulfilling prophecy - attractive likely to be less socially anxious, more confident, less lonely.

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Germine et al. (2015)

Twin study, substantial agreement on attractiveness but individual preferences differed.

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Bruce et al. (1999)

Asked if target is present or absent in photos then identify them. 60-70% accuracy identifying present target, more errors matching unfamiliar faces.

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Kemp et al. (1997)

Testing photo ID cards for Tesco with staff members. High accuracy but not enough to be acceptable for real life. Low rejection rates.

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Davis and Valentine (2009)

Jury asked if defendant sat next to CCTV video is the target. 22% errors when he was present, 17% errors when he was absent. A further 40-50% error when a disguise was used.

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White et al. (2014)

Matched p's that look similar and swapped ID's to be checked by passport officer. 6% errors for valid passports, 22% errors for invalid passports. No difference in the amount of experience the officers had.

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Bobak et al. (2016)

Match face to photo line-up - super-recognisers outperformed controls. Shown 40 pictures consecutively followed by 40 videos - super recognisers still did better.

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Jenkins et al. (2011)

Asked to sort faces into categories for identity. Uk p's made 7.7 piles, Dutch p's made 2.2 piles. They were Dutch celebrities so familiar to only the Dutch p's.

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White et al. (2016)

P's brought in 20 photos of themselves and had one taken in the lab. Asked to sort from most to least like them. Their ratings differed from other people's ratings of their photographs.

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Jenkins et al. (2011)

10 female faces rated on attractiveness, the best picture of the the least attractive person overlapped the worst picture of the most attractive person.

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Robertson et al. (2016)

Met police from a super recogniser team completed Glasgow Face Matching task, Model Face Matching task and Pixelated Lookalike task. Outperformed control on all.

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Henderson (2001)

Pictures of 2 robbers next to 2 line-ups - accuracy above chance but still poor. Robber 1 pic taken on different day gave much lower accuracy than Robber 2. Tested Robber 2 in line up for Robber 1 - 32% identified 2 as 1. High quality with disguise.

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Clutterbuck (2004)

Asked if pairs were the same or different, familiar faces matched quicker on internal features, different pairs matched quicker than the same, no different in external features.

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Joseph Abbitt

14 years in prison, 2 EWT, accused of sexual assault of 2 girls

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Innocent Project

DNA evidence to re-analyse old cases. Uncovered 340 wrongful convictions and 20 death sentences - 70% of which were down to misidentification.

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Tumbull Directive (1977)

If the case is dependent on only EWT, the jury should be pre-warned of the implications.

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Frowd et al. (2005)

P's watched crime video then used methods to create composite, low recognition for all methods.

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Frowd et al. (2010)

Re-analysed earlier study and found Evo-fit created 24% accuracy.

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Wells et al. (1979)

Having people that can be easily discounted in a line-up by height reduces the functional size.

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Loftus (2005)

Avoid misleading questions.

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Memon et al (2010)

Cognitive interview - focus on insigificant detail, regale the story from different perspectives and in different orders.

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Marcraw and Lewis (2002)

P's did a task either focusing on global or local info. then did line-up. Those focusing on global info. had higher recognition rates.

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Bindermann et al. (2012)

Face matching task followed by line-up. Better face recognition = better identification in line-up.

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Bruce et al. (2002)

Individual composites rated as least like the target compared to merged. Morphing had more effect on unfamiliar faces.

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Valentine (2008)

State anxiety from London Dungeons caused poor descriptions of the target, more inaccurate details and poor identification.

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Zarkadi et al. (2009)

6 person line-up to identify target, distinct features either repeated or concealed. More accurate in repeated condition, especially when the target is present. No difference when target is absent.

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Burton et al. (1999)

Students viewed lecturers on CCTV and had to identify them. Those familiar were easily identified but unfamiliar faces were harder even comparing them to clear photos.

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Yin (1969)

25% recognition rate for inverted faces - effects second order configuration.

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Composite face illusion

Easier to identify 2 faces that are misaligned because when put together it results in holistic processing making them harder to separate.

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Tanaka and Farah (1993)

Easier to identify Larry's nose when it is placed onto the whole face even if all the faces have very similar second order configuration.

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Valentine and Bruce (1986)

We are faster at recognising distinct faces.

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Valentine (1991)

Face space is where we store familiar faces in our brain. We compare the ones we see in real life to our face space to establish if they are familiar or not. Typical faces cluster but distinct faces are more spread apart.

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Rhodes (1996)

Celebrity caricatures with exaggerated features were identified as the original images

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Meissner and Brigham (2001)

Other-race effect - our face space is programmed to a specific culture.

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Roark et al. (2006)

Repetition of 1 image is enough to improve face recognition and make a face familiar.

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Murphy et al. (2015)

Showed 48 pictures followed by another 48 , asked how many identities there were. Higher accuracy for repeated than different images. Even more with context?

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Burton et al. (2005)

Better at recognising an average of Tony Blair compared to individual images.

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Yovel and Kanwisher (2005)

Activity in the lateral FFA correlates with the size of the face inversion effect.

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Darkin (2009)

We process faces as barcodes of horizontal information. Removing the eyebrows is more detrimental than the eyes. We can still recognise a face when it has been distorted as long as the barcode remains.

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Neumann (2013)

Showed 4 pictures and asked if another was present.Similar results for when a exemplar or average image was used.

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Rotshein (2005)

Morphed pairs of famous faces, showed functional dissociation. Inferior occipital gyrus = phsyical changes to face, both within and between. Right FFA = changes in identity, only between.

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Ekman (1972)

Visited pre-literature culture in Papa New Guinea. Read stories and recorded facial expressions. Expression identified by American p's and visa verca. But only 70-80% accuracy, differences in culture display rules.

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Rinh (1984)

When stroke patients asked to smile they could onyl move half their face but when told a joke they used both sides. Voluntary = motor cortex, involuntary = subcortical.

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Troster and Bambring (1992)

Babies blind from birth show basic facial expressions.

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Woodworth and Schlosberg (1954)

Put confusable expressions together to form a circle of emotions with the extremes at wither end.

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Young et al. (1997)

Moving through Woodworth's circle doesn't create a neutral face, merely changes from one expression to the next.

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Calder et al. (1996)

When a continuum is made going from one expression to the next, there is a categorical shift in identifying the expressions rather than a gradual change.

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Hsu and Young (2004)

P's that are repeatedly exposed to a fearful face decrease the rate of neurons firing, so when later shown a morph of fearful and neutral, they are less likely to label it as fearful.

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Calder and Young (2001)

Impaired disgust recognition in people with Huntington's disease.

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Harris et al. (2014)

When shown pairs of faces and asked if the same or different, pSTS shows increased activity for both within and between categories, Amygdala only increases activity for between.

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Jack et al. (2014)

Used anj avatar model to create faces of expression. Showed an evolved hierarchy of emotion and suggested there are only 4 basic emotions.

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Waller et al. (2008)

The muscles for basic emotions are always present and symmetrical.

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Pittenger and Shaw (1975)

Cardioidal strain - gravity pulls the face longer and the top of the head flattens with age.

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Bruce et al. (1993)

Laser scans identify the differentces in structure between the sexes. Females have different cheek areas and males have different jaw and brow.

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Hietanen et al. (1992)

Monkeys responded mostly to faces attending them and well lit. Activity in the STS.

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McNeil and Warrington (1993)

Prosopagnosic patient becomes a farmer and is able to identify his sheep.

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Young et al. (1993)

Brain injury to WW2 ex-servicemen showed either good face recognition and poor expressions recognition or vica versa. Double dissociation.

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Johnson et al. (1991)

24 hour old babaies show a preference for a paddle with a face on it.

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Turati et al. (2006)

Newborn are able to discriminate similar faces.

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Zhu et al. (2009)

Recognition may be heritable as MZ twins showed higher correlations that DZ twins. May be a cognitive specific gene for face recognition.

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Pascalis et al. (2012)

Showed 6 month old and 9 month old babies pictures. 6 month old looked longer at unfamiliar human and monkey faces. 9 month old just looked longer at unfamiliar human faces.

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Russell et al. (2009)

Super-recognisers show a larger face-inversion effect than controls or prosopagnosics.

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Face Perception

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