Q4: How can coastlines to be managed to meet needs of all

Economic costs: rebuilding, businesses, argricultural land, infrastructure 

social costs: relocation, loss of livelihood, loss of amenity areas/value

These costs can be significant in areas of dense coastal developments. Holderness is the fastest eroding coastline in Europe, retreats 2m a year. UK don't pay compensation to people who lose their homes to coastal erosion, North Norfolk a house was valued at £1. 

UK Environment agency estimated that 7000 properties in England/Wales worth £1bil would be lost to sea level rise this century, without defences this could be 74'000. 

Without adaptation, global costs of sea level rise could reach $1tril by 2050

Coastal flooding and storm surge events can have serious economic and social consequences for coastal communities in both developed and developing countries. 

PHILIPPINES: damage due to sea-level rise predicted to be greatest in Philippines, losses of $6.5bil/year. Many densely populated cities e.g. Manila will be flooded by 2100 with a 1m sea level rise, other areas will be frequently flooded with storm surges, up to 2.3mil people could be affected. San Fernando property losses estimated to be $2.5mil, land loss $21mil. There will also be social amenity losses, Many fisherman will lose jobs, key source of income.

Creates environmental refugees:

PHILIPPINES: Manila Bay is highly populated, very vulnerable to sea level change as well as San Fernando 

TUVALU ISLANDS: 10'800 at risk, increasing infertility of soils due to saltwater intrusion so malnourishment is becoming common. Considered the most climate vulnerable area in South Asia.

HARD ENGINEERING: involves structures along coast, usually at base of cliff or on beach to prevent specific coastal processes

SEA WALL: Concrete at base/behind cliff, can be flat-faced or curved. Acts as barrier to wave energy and prevent erosion. Easy to maintain and affective. Unattractive, expensive and reduces access to beach 

GROYNES: Wooden fences runnning at right angles to coast at intervals. They interrupt LSD, trapping sediment as it moves along the coastline, maintaining and sometimes widening the beach which absorbs more wave energy. Effective at reducing rates of erosion. Expensive, high maintenance and increases rates of erosion downdrift

RIP RAP: Pile of boulder rock at base of cliff. Absorbs wave energy which dissipates in gaps between boulders reducing erosion. Attractive, natural and cheap. Access to beach may be restricted 

SOFT ENGINEERING: Works with natural processes in coastal system to manage and modify specific coastal processes

CLIFF REGRADING: Cliff angle lowered and smoothed out often with vegetation. Lower angle means its less at risk of slumping, vegetation binds the cliff together reducing impact of cliff face processes. Blends in with natural surroundings, cheap, better access to beach. Only temporary and doesn't reduce erosion

CLIFF DRAINAGE: Drainage pipes incorporated into cliff face, often with trenches to collect and channel water into pipes. Removes water from porous rocks reducing risk of cliff face processes. Reduces erosion rates and slumping. Expensive and hard to maintain

BEACH NOURISHMENT: Additional sand added to make beach wider. Wider beach acts as buffer to erosion by absorbing wave energy. Cheap, reduces erosion and is natural. Only short term

Sustainable management is a long term approach that considers threats such as sea level rise and strom surges. Implementation of these plans can lead to local conflicts in many countries

Mitagation and adaptation will be needed for future stability: The UK has adaptated by moving away from hard engineering defences and using 'more sustainable approaches' that: Use latest scientific understanding, evaluate new coastal developments, ensure developments provide social and economic benefits etc. 

High costs of building/maintaining coastal defenses means some areas will not be supported by government funding. This creates conflicts between governments and communities. However it encourages local communities to adapt to coastal change themselves. 

-Uses the littoral cell concept to manage whole coastline

Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)

-emphasises cooperation of all stakeholders, dynamic and changes ideas as coastline changes, concerned with sustainability

Shoreline management plan

-supports coastal management by providing detail on coastal protection in the littoral cells. 

There are a range of policy decisions: 

-Hold the Line: use coastal defences to stop erosion, keep coast where it is

-Advance the Line: use coastal defences to extend coastline further into the sea

-Strategic retreat/realignment: gradually let coast erode, moving people away

-No active intervention: let nature take its course

These policy decisions are based on complex judgemens including: 

• Engineering feasibilty: How easy/valuable it is to put strategies in place
• Environmental sensitivity: Value of environment before you do anything
• Polital and social reasons: Who is in charge of making decisions? What do local people want 
• Cost-benefit analysis (CBA): weigh up advantages and disadvantages and economic impacts of strategies 
• Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): Identifies the positive and negatives, what would happen to the environment of strategies are implemented

HAPISBURGH COAST, NORFOLK:

• 'managed retreat' due to lack of funding. By 2015, 200m will be lost with a further 50 homes and property losses totalling £6mil. Low property prices mean its difficult for locals to move. 
• Government did begin providing a grant of £5000 for demolition costs and £1000 relocation costs
• Coastal concern action group was set up to fight for new renewal of failing sea defences 
• By 2011, owners were offered half the value of their homes to relocate, Beach road houses have been bought and demolished by governments to create a buffer zone btween coast and village

CHITTAGONG, BANGLADESH

• Aim to climate proof the area
• involves improving road connections (for farmers and markets) while raising embankments 
• Creating new market areas on platforms above expected 2050 sea level
• constructing/improving 25 tropical cyclone shelters 
• Helps poverty by providing income oppurtunities and reduces disaster risk, however construction disturbs people and removes vegetation