Memory

Memory: The process of storing and retrieving information.

The Information Processing Approach:

• Input- The entry of sensory information in the form of sights, sound, smell etc. 
• Encoding- The processing of information in order to make sense of it and give it meaning
• Storage- Encoded information is stored as a memory that might be used in the future
• Retrieval- Accessing the information from where it has been stored in our memory
• Output- Using the information once it has been accessed

In Every Story, Reality is the Origin

Memory Failure:

Retrieval and output stages don't always function correctly- main problems in these stages are accessibility and availability problems.

Accessibility- Information is there but cannot be retrieved

                    - Temporary problem

                    - 'Tip of the tongue phenomenon'

Availability- Information is no longer in the memory at all

                 - Permanent problem

                 - May occur if information is not used or there is not                                       enough space for it 

The Multi-Store Model Theory (Atkinson & Shiffrin 1968):

• Most well known theory of how memory works
• Main idea- Human memory is made up of separate and distinct stores

Sensory Memory: The store where all sensory information is briefly held unless it is paid attention to

Short-Term Memory: The memory store that has limited capacity (7+/-2) and limited duration (10-20 secs), and where information becomes conscious

Long-Term Memory: The memory store that has unlimited capacity and unlimited duration, and where information is permanently held

Outline:

• First store that memory enters is sensory store
• If attention is not payed to information, it decays
• If attention is payed, information is processed into the short-term memory (STM)
• To keep information in the STM, it needs to be repeated (maintenance rehearsal)
• If information is rehearsed for about 30 secs, it should transfer to the long-term memory (LTM)

Decay- The fading of information over time until it is forgotten

Displacement- The information is 'shunted' out of storage by new information so it is forgotten

Criticisms of the Multi-Store model:

• The model is too rigid
• The STM and LTM are oversimplified
• The model ignores individual differences- Why do some people have a better memory than others if we are all the same?
• Ignores the idea of implicit memory- Rehearsal is over emphasised. We do not rehearse everything that enters our LTM
• Some theories claim there are different types of LTM stores- one for storing autobiographical events, general knowledge, and procedures.

Levels of Processing (Craik and Lockhart 1975):

• Different levels of processing in the memory, from shallow to deep
• Shallow processing- Not really thinking about the meaning of infromation

                                - Less likely to recall it

                                - Includes iconic and acoustic processing

• Deep processing- Thinking about what a piece of infromation means

                            - More likely to recall it

                            - Includes semantic processing

• Does not differentiate between STM and LTM

Key words:

• Iconic- encoding only the physical qualities of something
• Acoustic- encoding how something sounds
• Semantic- Encoding the meaning of something

The four factors that affect how deeply we process information are:

• Personal relevance
• Elaboration
• Effort
• Distinctiveness

Paul Even Eats Dung

Criticisms:

• It does not explain how the deeper processing results in better memories
• Deeper processing takes more effort than shallow processing and it could be this, rather than the depth of processing that makes it more likely people will remember something.
• The concept of depth is vague and cannot be observed. Therefore, it cannot be objectively measured. 
• Eysenck (1990) claims that the levels of processing theory describes rather than explains 

Terry (2005):

Aim-

To show that a person's memory is affected by factors such as time and space.

Procedure-

• Tested people's memorry for television commercials
• 39 participants
• Shown 15 TV commercials, lasting 30 secs each
• Recalled commercials immediately, and after a delay of 3 mins (completed a written task during the delay)

Results-

• Showed a serial position effect
• Whether a product was recalled depended on where it was on the list (its serial position), not what the product was
• Immediate recall condition:Primacy and recency effects
• Supports the multi-store model
• Delayed recall condition:Primacy effect but no recency effect- written task decayed or displace the last few commercials

Primacy effect- information has been transferred from STM to LTM due to rehearsal

Recency effect- information is the most recently stored in the STM

Critisms-

• Validity-  Because the experiment took place in a classroom, it lacks ecological validity (one would normally watch ads with distractions)
• Representativeness- All participants were students and therefore the results are not representative of the whole population. There was not an equal ratio of males to females.
• Demand characteristics- Students knew they were taking part in research. The participants may have tried to help Terry achieve the results he wanted, having guessed the aim of the experiment.

Memory aids-

CUES: Cues can trigger memories

         eg. play doh can remind you of an event in your childhood

         Sophisicated uses- Colour coding

                                         - Mnemonics

         (Supported by Gooden and Baddeley- environmental                                     cues (context/situation) improve recall)

IMAGERY: Relating information to an image

MIND MAPPING