Managing rural change
OCR AS Geography, Managing rural change
- Created by: Ellie Ashton
- Created on: 16-04-12 18:07
Rural areas
Rural areas are areas where:
- the bulk of the land is not build on, being farmland or moorland etc
- the major industry and employer is agriculture and/ or forestry
- there is a low population density with few urban centres
- there is a distinctive non-urban culture and lifestyle
Functions
functions include:
- residential
- services
- agricultural
- quarrying
- forestry
- industrial
- tourism
- military training
- water supply
- recreational
high order services require a greater threshold population (minimum number of people necessary before a particular good or service can be provided) to support them and also draw their custom from a much larger sphere of influence
Processes operating in rural areas
- population growth and decline
- growth and decline of settlements
- changes in the rural economy
- impacts on rural society and the physical environment
in rural areas close to large urban areas
- in-migration of population and growth of settlements- counter-urbanisation
- can cause commuter or domintary settlements to develop as many residents live in the countryside but work in the cities and towns
in contrast some remote rural areas are experiencing decline of economy oppurtunity and of population affecting the age-structure of the area, and the attractiveness of the region, people move out and a cycle of deprivation and decline may develop
Factors affecting land-use patterns
Physical factors
- climate- highland areas= sheep; warm/sunny areas= fruit and vines
- relief- flat land= arable; steep slopes= sheep, aspect
- drainage- wet areas= cattle, rice; dry areas= sheep; lakes= reserviors
- soils- fertile soils= arable; infertile= moorland/forest, alkali soils= cereals
- Geology- hard rocks= quarries
Economic factors
- distance- farming less intensive (more pastoral) with distance from town as inputs more expensive with distance
- capital- lack of capital= pastoral
- transport- good transport= cash crops (e.g. market gardening)
- labour supply- lack of labour= pastoral; plenty of labour= market gardening
- demand from consumers, industry etc- many crops have bi-products, e.g. cotton= lint and oil
Factors affecting land-use patterns
social factors
- population type- e.g. nomads keep animals, not static crops
- religion- some religions favour certain activities
- culture- e.g. Fulani (north Nigeria) measure their status and wealth in cattle
- education- the more educated tend to be more progressive
Historical factors
- inertia- not easy to change farming type as large investment in equipment
- where change is common, pastoral farming is common as investment is mobile
Political factors
- planning- land use zoning, national parks etc
- land ownership, farm size (inheritance laws)
- government policies- quotas, subsidies, etc e.g. EUCAP, set-aside etc
Case Study- 2 contrasting farming areas- East Angl
East Anglia- cereals, sugar beet and rapeseed
Physical
- warm sunny summers
- cold winters with frosts
- dry
- flat land for machinery
- glacial fertile soils
- well drained as underlying chalk
Social
- well educated
- declining farming population
Historical
- long history of arable but was once sheep area for wool trade e.g. worsted
Case study- East Anglia
Economic
- large scale agri-businesses
- reduces cost by growing crops that can be machine harvested
- bult transport
- needs little labour
- large scale farms
- demand from london and agri-industries= brewing, sugar, oils
Political
- influenced by CAP
- reduction in subsidies has forced cut in costs= more mechanisation
Case Study- 2 contrasting farming areas- Southern
Southern Nigeria- tree crops e.g. oil palm, cocoa, rubber
Physical
- hot humid climate all year
- high all year rainfall
- fertile river silts
Economic
- plantations owned by TNCs
- run like factories so need constant output
- near coast for ports
- plenty of cheap labour
- large scale farms
- demand from exporting and local industries= rubber, soap, oils
Case study- Southern Nigeria
Social
- poorly educated
- high birth rate so growing farming population
Historical
- long history from colonial times- British used area as source of raw materials
Political
- Influenced by government's need for exports to pay for development
Settlement patterns
3 aspects to settlement patterns:
- horizontal- spacing of settlements; even, regular, random
- vertical- the settlement and its hierarchy and its functions
- individual settlement shape- linear, nucleated, dispersed etc
Settlement patterns
causes: many are historical, In England, most rural settlements are recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086, once existence although some vanished due to the Black death wiping out the whole village
- physical factors- these dominate as settlements grow up, usually based on farming e.g. fertile soil, water supply, shelter, timber and building material supply. They are often shown in place names e.g. ley means clearing in a wood
- Economic factors- these tend to control which villages expand into towns e.g. transport routes, power (wind or water mills)
- social factors- often villages set up 'daughter settlements' e.g. Great and Little Tew near Oxford. Some grew up around abbeys or large houses supplying their needs
Settlement hierarchy
=the organisation and structure of settlement based on size and the number of functions of a settlement, at the top are cities and conurbations and at the base are dispersed individual farmsteads
Hamlets
- =small collection of farms and houses generally lacking in all by the most basic services and facilities
- the trade generated by the population which is often less than 100 people, will only support low order services such as a general store, a sub post-office or a pub
- low order services usually have a small threshold population and serve a small catchment area
Settlement Hierarchy
Villages
- larger in population
- wider range of services including school, church or chapel, community centre and a small range of shops
Small market town
- larger populations than villages and a greater variety of high and low order goods
- catchment area is bigger than that of hamlets and villages and people will range much further to obtain the goods and services that they offer
Settlement hierarchy
Development
some develop more rapidly than others because:
physical conditions: climate, relief, drainage, soil type, vegetation, water supply, rock type
Economic factors
- transport- density and type of routes
- accessibility to large urban areas
- ability to outbid for sites
- size of site available
- mutual attraction/ repulsion- e.g. pig farms and residential
- availability of raw materials- e.g. sand and gravel, crops
- nature of local and regional demand for rural produce
- availability of labour- quantity, quality, price
- existing rural industries- e.g. sugar refining
Development
Social factors
- Historical- conservation, e.g. National Park, reputation, tradition, culture
- Mutual attraction/ repulsion
- Population size, type and characteristics
- Land ownership- estate development e.g. national trust
- religious factors
- inertia- difficult to change activities e.g. forestry
Political factors
- planning controls- national parks, SSSIs, nature reserves
- controls on farming e.g. CAP, set-aside
- development schemes e.g. release of green belt
- government uses e.g. military ranges
Case Study- 2 rural areas- West Oxfordshire
Environment
- 30% of area is Cotswold AONB
- much is grassland for sheep and pockets of woodlands
Historical
- land ownership has been crucial- large estates such as Duke of Marlborough's
Farming
- Increase in high yielding cereals but sheep in remoter high areas
- declined as a source of employment
Industry
- Traditional rural industries of wool, e.g. Witney, furniture, quarrying
Case Study- West Oxfordshire
Settlement- villages with market towns such as Chipping Norton
Infrastructure
- 2 main roads A40 and A44
- railway line to Oxford
Social
- ageing population with high percentage of retired people
- low birth rate
- relatively prosperous population
Oppurtunities
- increase in hi-tech and science parks e.g. Begboke
- increase in tourism e.g. Blenheim
- increase in second homes and commuter homes e.g. Charlbury
Case Study- 2 rural areas- Eastern Cape, South Afr
Environment
- hostile with low variable rainfall so much is uncultivated scrubland
Historical
- Afrikaans area which was resettled as 'homelands' in 1970s under apartheid
Farmlands
- Largely poor-quality pastoral
- subsistence with some arable near rivers- vegetables and maize
- yields low
Industry- none
Settlements- townships of resettled people, no real hierarchy
Case Study- Eastern Cape, South Africa
Infrastructure
- Little water (e.g. 3km walk to get it) power or sanitation
- few local services
- 2 main roads but few local tracks
Social
- most men migrate away for work so unbalanced gender ratio
- poverty and unemployment widespread
- youthful population so high birth rate
Opportunities
- increase in tourism
- many commute to work in coastal cities
Social and economic issues with rural change
Changes to rural settlements since the 1970s in the UK have resulted in:
- depopulation of remote rural areas
- fewer farms
- changing agricultural land use
- increase in population in more accessible rural areas
- counterurbanisation
- increase in long-distance commuting
- new roads
- airports
- housing schemes
- theme parks
Improvements in transport
- there is a relationship between the type and rate of change that is occurring in rural settlements and distance from large urban areas
- the most accessible villages have grown most
- many villages have grown at alarming rates and have lost their original character, form and function
- often described as dormitory, commuter or suburbanised villages e.g. Burford
- Growth occurs initially around the original core, much of the growth is along main roads but there is also some infilling and incorporation of farms and buildings outside the original settlement (isolates)
Changes in the suburbanised village
OV- original village, SV- suburbanised village
Housing
- OV- detached, stone built houses with slate/ thatch roofs, some farms, most over 100 years old, barns
- SV- new, mainly detached or semis; renovated barns or cottages; expensive planned estates, garages
Inhabitants
- OV- farming and primary jobs; labouring or manual jobs
- SV- professionals/ executives; commuters; wealthy with families or retired
Transport
- OV- bus service; some cars; narrow winding roads
- SV- decline in bus services as most families have 1-2 cars; better roads
Changes in the suburbanised village
Services
- OV- village shop, small junior school, public house, village hall
- SV- more shops, enlarged school, modern public houses, and/or restaurant
Social
- OV- small, close-knit community
- SV- local community swamped; village may be deserted by day
Environment
- OV- quiet, relatively pollution-free and open space
- SV- more noise and risk of pollution, loss of farmland
Key term definitions
Dormitory settlement= a rural settlement that has a high proportion of commuters
Commuter settlement= a settlement in which people live but don't work
Suburbanised village= a settlement where there has been recent growth changing its character from primarily farming orientated to residential with the majority working in nearby towns
Key factors leading to growth or decline in rural
Increased standards of living- as people become better off and have access to one or more cars, they are able to live further away from their place of work
decreased size of households- the loss of the traditional nuclear family means there is much greater demand for housing, and there are more homes with fewer people in them
growing dissatisfaction with urban lifestyles- many large urban areas are considered to be unsafe, polluted, expensive, unfriendly, and a poor place to bring up a family- rural areas are often perceived to be the opposite
increasing car ownership- allow people and families to commute easily as transport developments improve
improving technology- e.g. internet, means some called telecommuting
causes of change
- population change- migration, birth rate, ethnic mix, age structure
- social change- decreased household size, more single person households
- mobility change- increased car ownership and declining public transport
- incomes and wealth- increased or decreased, crop/livestock prices change
- attitudes- desire for and satisfaction with urban or rural lifestyles
- political- planning initiatives, creating conservation areas, land use zoning
- employment structure/ location- agricultural versus services
- changing technology- rise of internet so can work from home, mechanisation of technology
- increased leisure time- growth of tourism and recreation
- perception of danger, security, crime risk etc
- changing infra-structure- gas, water, electricity, tv etc
- public services- growth or decline type, location
issues that result from change
Physical:
- relief- building on unsuitable sites e.g. steep slope, drainage- water shortage, pollution
- vegetation- loss of habitats
- pollution- air, water, land, noise, visual
Economic:
- power- shortage, reliability, high cost
- industry- lack of jobs or low pay, migrant labour
- settlement- housing quality and quantity, cost, second homes
- services- lack of sufficient schools, shops, clinics etc
- transport- cost, poor public transport
Social:
- wealth inequality and deprivation
- age profile- dependency ratio, birth rates, social services
- migration- depopulation, cultural change
Issues in the rural-urban fringe- greenfield sites
Advantages:
- land may be accessible
- cheaper land
- people prefer more space and pleasant environments
- allows planners more freedom
- easier to plan for infrastructural developments
Disadvantages
- habitat destruction
- reduction in biodiversity
- increased pollution
- increased impermeability leads to flooding
- increased traffic on the road, and cross city commuting
Issues in the rural-urban fringe- brownfield sites
Advantages
- redevelopment of derelict land
- does not harm environment
- creates jobs locally
- provides a boost to local economies
- may use existing infrastructure
Disadvantages
- land may be contaminated
- widespread air and water pollution
- congestion
- overcrowding
- land is expensive
problems associated with the development and growt
urban sprawl- some cities in the UK have a green belt preventing urban sprawl but places such as Swindon, the potential for urban sprawl is greater since there is not planning legislation
need for more housing- pressure on rural areas for housing developments
- between 1991 and 2001 a further 460,000 new homes were needed
- increased demand for housing is generated by longer life expectancy, young people leaving home earlier, families splitting up
- large urban areas are no longer desirable as they are seen as expensive, polluted and unsafe
problems associated with the development and growt
Where should new homes be built?
- location of West Oxfordshire and its high environmental quality has helped sustain a high demand for housing since 1981 West Oxfordshire's population has grown by 25%
- The West Oxfordshire local government's objective in relation to housing is:
- identify sufficient sources of new housing
- locate new housing where it will have the least adverse impact on the character and resources of West Oxfordshire
- seek a range of new residential accommodation which provides a variety of sizes, types and affordability
Industrial growth and urban services
- some services such as reservoirs or cemeteries located in the urban fringe may be attractive visitor destinations
- landfill sites, mineral workings and sewage works can be unattractive and polluting
problems associated with the development and growt
Recreational pressures for golf courses and sports stadia
- activities in the urban fringe like stock-car racing and scrambling can erode ecosystems and create localised litter and pollution
- however, country parks, sports fields and golf courses can lead to conservation
- Golf courses e.g. South Hinksey in urban fringe of Oxford, keep a large area 'semi-natural' with trees, grassland shrubs maintaining biodiversity but there is claims that golf courses waste water and destroy natural habitats
- country parks provide a more direct way of conserving the environment e.g. Shotover country park in east oxford
problems associated with the development and growt
transport and infrastructure development
- motorways destroy countryside e.g. development of M40 to the east of Oxford
- building of major new roads through environmentally sensitive areas meets much local and national opposition e.g. Twyford Down near Winchester
- some transport infrastructure can have a positive impact e.g. cycle ways can improve access and promote new development
Agricultural developments
- well-managed farms and small-holdings in the urban fringe they can suffer from litter, trespass and vandalism and some land lies derelict in hope of planning permissions for development
problems associated with the development and growt
service development
- there are some well sited, well-landscapred rural developments
- there are some incidences of other development
- some out of town shopping areas and some unregulated businesses like scrap metal and caravan storage which can be unsightly and detrimental to the environment
Case study- Oxfordshire- growth
Factors causing change
- expansion of Oxford beyond its green belt
- attractive scenery
- Good link to London via train or M40
Developments
- increased housing e.g. Blackbird Leys
- increased recreation e.g. college sports grounds, golf courses, football stadium
- new business parks e.g. nano-technology at Begbroke
- park and ride schemes
- increased arable farming
Case study- Oxfordshire- growth
Environmental impacts
- loss of habitats
- increased flood risk
- increased pollution- chiefly from traffic and modern farming e.g. eutrophication
Economic impacts
- increased road congestion as more traffic
- soaring house prices
- decline in primary jobs
- increase in service jobs- often skilled and well paid
- loss of rural services as many commute e.g. post offices
- growth of mini-industrial areas e.g. chipping norton
Case study- Oxfordshire- growth
Social impacts
- friction between 'locals' and wealthy newcomers
- increased social activities e.g. music groups
- closure of rural services e.g. primary schools as few young people
- ageing population
political impacts
- traditional rural values under threat
Case study- Eastern cape- decline
Factors causing change
- impoverished population isolated on remote former homeland area- overcrowded and high natural increase
- increased freedom to move
Developments
- road improvement- more all-weather roads and bridges means more could migrate for work
- subsistence farming replaced by cash so less labour needed
Environmental impacts
- loss of wildlife (used for food)
- soil erosion from clearing the bush for fuel etc
- water pollution
Case study- Eastern cape- decline
Economic impacts
- rising unemployment
- rising poverty
- very poor road maintenance
- lack of skills (only 4%)
- most work as migrant labourers
- agriculture in decline (30% uncultivated)
- farms and houses left derelict
Social impacts
- high incidence of HIV and AIDs
- high percentage of women and elderly as young men migrated for work
- traditional culture in decline
- youthful population- high birth rate
Political impacts- traditional rural values under threat
Decline in rural services
The rural development commission's 1991 survey of rural services throughout the UK revealed that:
- 39% of parishes had no shop
- 40% had no post office
- 51% had no school
- 29% had no village hall
- 73% had no daily bus service
- fewer than 10% had a bank, building society, nursery, day-care centre, dentist or daily train service
population changes have led to most rural areas having about average numbers of elderly people and below average numbers of 16-20 year olds
Decline in rural services
Loss of local shops
- in 1991, 61% of settlements under 300 population had one or more weekly mobile shops
- a significant minority of people- 1/4- still depend on a local shop for their everyday needs
Primary schools
- many rural primary schools closed in the 1960s-70s especially in smaller villages of under 200 people
- by 1991 only 40% f parishes had a primary school and these usually had a population of over 500 people
Decline in rural services
Healthcare services
- by 1991, only 16% of parishes had a permanent GP surgery
Transport services
- in 1991, only 27% of parishes had bus services and only 7% had a rail service
- although by necessity car ownership is higher in the countryside than in towns
Environmental issues
- pollution- air, water (eutrophication) noise, visual, solids
- water- scarcity (transfer schemes, use of aquifers, reservoir building)
- traffic- congestion, pollution, land use (roads, car parks, garages etc)
- habitat destruction- direct and indirect, species diversity
- disease introduction- accidental (e.g. foot and mouth) or planned (myxomatosis)
- new species introduced- accidentally or planned
- dereliction- visual pollution, safety, health
traffic congestion and pollution
causes:
- increased car ownership and usage
- improved main roads/ motorways but these feed into minor narrow rural roads
- increased commuting- daily and at weekends (second homes etc)
- increased recreation in rural areas
- bottlenecks e.g. bridges
- slow farm traffic and/or herds/flocks
- decline in public transport
Example- Use Hook
Traffic congestion and pollution
problems caused
- time lost in delays
- increased pollution as slow traffic increases pollution
- accidents- animals killed etc
- high fuel costs as slow and winding roads
- decline in public transport- slowed by congestion etc
Management
- national parks are traffic planning authority
- use of charging policies
- subsidised public transport
Increasing use for recreation and leisure
Causes
- increased car ownership
- increased leisure time- shorter working week
- higher real incomes
- diversification from farming e.g. karting, fishing
- creation of National Parks
- second home ownership
Increasing use for recreation and leisure
Problems
- conflicts with farmers e.g. trampling crops, fires
- honeypots get overused, congested
- increased noise (e.g. karting) and pollution (e.g. litter)
- forces up local prices e.g. house prices
- second home problems
- road and parking congestion in holiday season
management
- honeypot sites
- National Parks, ANOBs, etc
- Private owner- forestry commission, national trust etc
Building development
causes
- urban sprawl, overspill and counterurbanisation
- family break-up- need for more single person dwellings
- ageing housing stock- much is old, decaying and wooden etc
- higher rural birth rate
- demand for commuter or second homes
Building development
problems
- loss of habitats
- increased risk of flooding- more impervious surfaces
- rise in land prices
- overstretched rural services
- new buildings do not fit into traditional village style
- pressure on local infrastructure e.g. water, power
Management
- establishment of key settlements or rural hubs- concentrate development and facilities
- tight planning controls over number, type and style of housing
- use of brownfield sites e.g. disused quarries, old aerodromes
- development of eco-towns e.g bordon
Impact of changes in farming
Causes
- need to reduce costs and increase outputs
- growth of agri-businesses 'mining in soil'
- labour shortages= increased mechanisation
- CAP- reduction in subsidies
- increased use of chemicals- pesticides, fertilisers etc
- cheap foreign produce e.g. enlargement of EU= competition
- diversification in consumer taste- quality and variety wanted
- changing technology e.g. increased mechanisation, hydroponics etc
Impact of changes in farming
Problems
- water pollution- eutrophication
- poisoning or disturbance of wildlife- food chain damaged
- soil erosion
- concentration on a few crops- disease/pest risk
- loss of hedgerows, copses and habitats
- excessive irrigation leading to leaching or waterlogging
- soil compressed by machinery= rapid runoff= floods
Management
- set aside
- organic farming
- hybrid crops (GM crops, Green Revolution)
- deintensification
- nitrate sensitive areas
- environmentally sensitive areas
Case Study:impacts of modern farming- East Anglia-
Mechanisation
- led to reduction in hedges, increase in field size and loss of ecosystems
- compresses soil structure
- high cost- fuel
- pollution
Agri-chemicals
- nitrate pollution= eutrophication
- pesticides get into food chain= loss of wildlife
- herbicides kill rare plants
Tenure
- individual farmers brought out by agri-businesses so loss of community
Case Study:impacts of modern farming- East Anglia-
Irrigation
- increases crop yields and offsets dry spells but lowers rivers and water table
- led to construction of reservoirs
Drainage
- loss of wetland areas
- chemicals drain into rivers
limited range of crops
- soil erosion as soil exhausted
- danger of pests and disease
Case Study:impacts of modern farming- East Anglia-
Hybrid crops
- tests of GM crops face opposition
Impact
- Increased output so much that CAP reformed to reduce surpluses
Case Study- Impacts of modern farming- India (NIC)
Mechanisation
- led to loss of rural jobs= increased rural poverty
- high cost of fuel, parts etc
Agri-chemicals
- Nitrate pollution= eutrophication
- high cost of chemicals so discriminates against poor
- damage to wildlife as little regulation e.g DDT
Tenure
- Rich farmers expanded at expense of poor= loss of food subsistence crops= increased rural hunger
Case Study- Impacts of modern farming- India (NIC)
Irrigation
- increases crop yields and offsets dry spells but lowers rivers and water table
- excessive irrigation has caused salinisation and droughts
Drainage
- loss of wetland and pollution of drinking water
Limited range of crops
- soil erosion and loss of many staple food crops= increased dietary problems pests/ diseases common
Case Study- Impacts of modern farming- India (NIC)
Hybrid crops
- 60% of crops are hybrids with higher yields: 3 crops a year but they are more expensive
Impact
- India was turned into a food exporter by 2000, but has now turned back into an importer
Land degradation and dereliction
Causes
- Loss of population- fewer people to maintain people
- Ageing population- too poor or old to renovate property
- Decline in farming or swap to a different form= spare buildings
- Excessive use of agri-businesses
- Local authorities lack funds as low tax base
Problems
- Decaying property, outbuildings, etc- eyesore and dangerous
- soil erosion- silting of rivers, dust storms etc
- abandoned machinery, overgrown fields etc
Management
- planning controls
- taxation of derelict buildings
- soil conservation, organic farming, set-aside etc
Environmental issues in Oxford
Traffic congestion
issues
- increasing due to little road development- at capacity
- loss of land for parking
- high cost of road improvements e.g. £100m for A40
Possible solutions
- Double track the railway line from worchester, revive Oxford to Whitney line
- improve bus services using guided transit express system
Environmental issues in Oxford
Recreation
Issues
- country park at Shotover
- Day visits to honeypot sites such as Blenheim
- Golf course construction
Possible solutions
- extension of green belt controls
- careful management of honeypot sites
Environmental issues in Oxford
Pollution
issues
- increased air pollution
- water pollution from roads and farming
- plan for new reservoir to store Thames water- construction will cause problems
Possible solutions
- close monitoring of pollution levels by water authority- fines for polluters
Environmental issues in Oxford
Farm Changes
Issues
- increased arable has reduced hedges and increased soil erosion
Possible solutions
- set-aside and organic farming to meet needs of oxford
Dereliction
Issues
- rare as buildings snapped up for second homes
possible solutions- planning controls
Environmental issues in Oxford
Other
Issues
- destruction of green belt- 4000 homes planned to the south
- increase in impermeable surfaces= increased flooding
- decreased biodiversity
Possible solutions
- Development confined to old disused rural sites e.g. Shipton Quarry (5000 homes)
- Increased flood protection schemes e.g. Witney
- Creation of SSSIs and nature reserves
Management Challenges
Management challenges involve how to balance the environmental needs (e.g. wildlife, hydrology and vegetation) against economic factors (e.g farming, employment and transport) and social factors (e.g. rural way of life and historic/ cultural aspects)
Sustainability is the ability to carry the system on into the future without a reduction in the system or standard of living
it is about reducing inputs (e.g. energy, water, chemicals) and reducing harmful outputs (e.g. pollution, soil erosion) but also about ensuring flows in the system are efficient (e.g. transport)
Issues
- the exact nature of the environment and water resources and their status
- the cost, long and short term and who should pay
- who gets benefits and who loses out, and how effective the scheme is
- the political will and ownership
- technology- whether the area has the expertise to develop
- the size and scale
- how long it will take, quick fix versus long term
- balancing priorities
- the wider impacts
Case Study-ways farms adapt to change to try to be
Specialise
- reduce the range of activities so reducing costs
- specialise in a small range of outputs usually high value, low weight
- very risky if demand or weather change
- e.g. Howbarrow farm in Cumbria is an organic farm growing vegetables, herbs and fruit
- In 2001, it started a home delivery service, also has a farm trail and bed and breakfast
Case Study-ways farms adapt to change to try to be
Diversify- existing activities
- use the existing activities or infrastructure in a different way to diversify the sources of farm income
- not a change in use so unlikely to need planning permission
- e.g Hicks farm in Essex has a farm shop, rents out disused barns for storage and uses its reservoirs for fishing, it is the latter that earns the largest 'profit'
Case Study-ways farms adapt to change to try to be
Diversify into new activities
- develop new activities on the farm that bring in new sources of income so spreading the risk if crop prices fall etc
- will need planning permission and new build
Examples
- Leaches farm in Buckinghamshire has set up its own business centre of 8 office units with a £5000 p.a. rent.
- It benefits from its proximity to the M40
Case Study-ways farms adapt to change to try to be
Change type of activity
- move out of farming into a new activity often based on tourism or recreation
- limited market and often seasonal
Examples
- Old Macdonald's farm in Essex near the M25 has 50 indoor and outdoor amusements
Making rural areas more sustainable-Local scale
Example: SSSI- site of scientific interest
- Notification of an SSSI will include a statement of the views of Natural England (NE) or the Countryside Council for Wales (CCW) about the management of the land, as swell as a list of operation that may be harmful to the special interest
- if the owner or occupier wishes to carry out any of these operations they must first obtain consent from NE/CCW
Comment
- these fears on preserving rare species or fragile ecosystems, so sustaining them
- management is by agreement with the landowner but if no agreement can be reached then it can be compulsorily purchased
- often very small scale but in total can cover a large area e.g 10% of Wales has been so designated. The pembrokeshire coastal path has 17 SSSIs
- sometimes too small to manage and 'police' effectively
Making rural areas more sustainable-Area
Example- National Park, Peak District: UK's first in 1951
- The Authority acts as a planning authority to control developments seen as harmful to the environment
- it offers specialists' advice on entitlement to grants for any work carried out and there are a number of projects aimed at supporting and funding local organisations that are helping conserve and enhance the environment
- as well as offering guidance, the authority is also working with its partners to develop mid- to long-term plans and policies protecting the National Park's landscape and wildlife to sustain its community by developing the rural economy
Comment
- more overtly aimed at sustainability, especially balancing economic and environmental sustainability
- unlike National Parks elsewhere the authority doesn't own the land and can only control via planning and targeted grants, it is charged with the task of keeping the rural areas vibrant- management not conservation
- conflict occurs between conservation activities and need to grant visitors access
Making rural areas more sustainable- regional
Example- Amathole, South Africa
- the district council aims to halve unemployment, eradicate poverty, invest in sustainable infrastructure and develop the economy
- it will develop livestock farming co-operatives, introduce drought resistant fodder crops
- it will also develop essential oils based on local plants (high value, low weight product)
- focus on improving education and roads
comment
- focus is mainly on economic sustainability
- progress is slow as it needs large public and private investments to 'kick-start'
- may be economically and socially sustainable but any success may endanger the natural environment unless it is closely monitored
- the area also suffers from a high birth rate and HIV so these may siphon off investment
Making rural areas more sustainable-National
Example- UK
- Natural England has powers stemming from the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949 to designate land as a National Nature Reserve (NNR)
- Each NNR has its own reserve management plan e.g. Beinn Eighe, Britain's first National Nature Reserve, features striking mountain scenery and ancient pinewoods overlooking Loch Maree
- the reserve is home to typical Highland wildlife, including red deer, golden eagles and the pine marten
comment
- tend to aim at environmental sustainability at the expense of economic sustainability
- the Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2003 granted a statutory right of responsible access which puts pressure on such reserves
- NNRs in Scotland are either managed by Scotland National Heritage or privately ownded and managed under the National Reserve agreement
- Other NNRs are managed and owned by partner organisations who own land such as the Forestry Comission, RSPB and the National Trust, contrasting priorities
Making rural areas more sustainable- International
Example- EU
- limestone pavements were given protection under the European Habitats Directive in 1992, when they were recognised as a priority habitat for designation as Special Areas of Conservation (SAC)
- priority habitat types are those seen as at risk of development across Europe
- 7 areas of pavement in the UK have been identified as possible Special Areas of Conservation under the directive
Comment
- Overtly aimed at sustainability, balancing the economic and environmental
- EU has tried to bring consistency to development policies
- Rural areas came under Objective 2 funding- where there is a low population density, declining population, high unemployment etc
- During the 1990s the CAP introduced set-aside, and promoted organic farming, grants for environmental projects and subsidies for converting arable land to woodland, trying to make rural areas economically viable
Making rural areas more sustainable- Global
Example- UN
- Biosphere Reserves (BR) are areas of terrestrial and coastal/marine ecosystems which are international recognised under UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere (MAB) programme launched in 1971. e.g. Braunton Burrows National Nature Reserve in 1976
Comment
- key sites are recognised as needing protection but the UN also encourages development in a sustainable way
- ultimately, national interests could conflict with such designations e.g. plan for an airport on Maplin Sands in Essex- an area of international importance for bird migration
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