c1500-c1700: The Medical Renaissance

Change:

• The Theory of the Four Humours can't be used to explain certain diseases anymore.
• People were more curious about the world, so there were lots of new ideas about the causes of illness and disease.
• Many scientist wanted to better understand the world around them.

Continuity:

• People still relied on remedies and cures from earlier times.
• People still believed that miasma caused diseases.
• The practise of medicine is the same, eventhough ideas about medicine are changing.

• Paracelsus, Swiss scientist and medical professor:
  • The Four Humours were rejected.
  • Disease was seen as something separate from the body that needed to be attacked.
  • New  chemical treatments started to appear.
• Girolamo Fracastoro, Italian physician:
  • 1546, "On Contagion" theorised that disease was caused by seeds spread in the air.
• William Harvey, English scientist:
  • 1628, a new theory was published which suggested that blood circulated around the body.
  • This went against Galen's teachings, that blood was made in the Liver
• Jan Helmont, Fleemish physician:
  • A better understanding of the digestive system had developed.
  • People gradually stopped believing that disease was caused by eating the wrong things.
  • Urine was no longer the way to diagnose illnesses.
• Robert Hooke, English scientist and head of experiments at Royal Society:
  • New microscopes were developed, which allowed clearer magnification.
  • 1665, "Micrographia" had detailed images copied from a magnified image.

• Thomas Sydenham, English physician:
  • 1676,  "Observation Medicae" theorised that illnesses were caused by external factors, rather than the Four Humours.
• Antony Leeuwenhoek, Dutch scientist:
  • 1683, more powerful microscopes had been developed.
  • It allowed to view tiny animalcules.
  • This was the first recorded observation of bacteria.

Why Was The Impact of Discoveries So Small?

Miasma:

The Use of Medical Books:

• Physicians carried out more obseervations of their patients.
• However, they did rely on text for looking up symptoms.

The Influence of the Church:

• Most people recognised that God did not send diseases.
• However, in times of epidemics, religious causes were still considered.

Supernatural:

• Astrology was much less popular from 1500.
• However, in times of epidemics people still wore charms to ward off the disease.

The Theory of the Four Humour:

• Very physicians believed this by the end of 1600's.
• It was still used to diagnose diseases because patients understood it.

Human Body:

• There was a much better understanding of the anatomy.

Diagnosing using Urine:

• Physicians understood that urine was not directly related to a person's health.

Printing Press:

• Invented in 1440 by Gutenberg, by 1500 there were hundreds across Europe.
• Many exact copies of text could be produced in a short amount of time.
• It reduced the Church's power, as it could no longer prevent the publication of ideas that it di not approve of.
• The books, ideas and discoveries of scientists ccould be shared effectively across a wider area.

Royal Society:

• They aimed to futher scientific understanding by carring out and recording scientific knowledge, theories and ideas.
• It supported scientists to enable them to carry out reserch.
• 1665, Royal Society publishd a journal which scientists ccould share their works.
• Scientists could study, challenge and build on other's research.
• This way, theories could be confirmed/dismissed and the new findings could be spread throughout the medical community quickly.

There was some changes in hospital care, but most treatment and preventations remained the same.

• 1500,  hospitals were treating more sick people and less for travellers.
• Most had their own apothecary to mix medicines.
• Physicians frequently visited patients.
• 1536, the dissolution of the monasteries (by Henry VIII) caused most hospitals to close.
• Charity-funded hospitals were set up.
• Only in 1700's did the number of hospitals returned to normal.
• More pest houses appeared- people suffering from a particular disease could go for care.
• When hospitals re-appearred, they were run by physicians.
• They focused on treating the sick rather han religion.

• Community Care:
  • Like Medival times, physicians were too expensive so usually women helped with advice and remedies.
  • Some were paid for their services.

• Conitinuity... Treatments & preventation:
  • Tradional herbal remedies
  • Bleeding and purging
  • Healthy living and cleanliness
  • Supertitions and prayer

• Changes...
  • More emphasis on removing miasma through draining swamps and removing rubbish
  • People regularly changed their clothes to keep clean
  • New herbal remedies from newly discoveres which some were effective
  • The theory of transference led people to try/rub objects to transfer the disease onto another object.
  • Alchemy caused chemical cures using metals or minerals became popular

• Lack of Change...
  • The ideas were slow to be accepted
  • They had no direct use in improving treatment
  • They had no direct use in preventing disease
  • Their discoveries did not understand of the cause of disease.
• The improved knowledge & discoveries had little impact at the time.

Continuinty:

• They were still trained at uni and the training lasted for years.
• Training was still based on learning form textbooks rather than practical work.

Change:

• There was a better access to a wider varirty of medical books due to the printing press.
• New ideas about anatomy and causes of disease
• This inspired soe physicians to become more practical
• Dissection was legalised but took time to become common

Continuity:

• They still didn't have uni training 
• They were considered inferior to physicians and they were cheaper

Change:

• Both were better changed through being in a guild systems, where
• They were apprentices, then journey men and then masters.
• A licence was now needed to work as apothecaries/surgeons, these were only given after completing training.

1533, carried out a large number of dissections on human bodies and discovered how the body works

He questioned the teachings of Galen and proved that some of his work was incorrect

He encouraged and inspired others to continue question and challenge theories

His work was widely spread thanks to the printing press

• Causes:
  • People's beliefs were the same as the Black Death
  • However, there were a few differences:
    • Miasma was the most common believed cause
    • Less people believed that it was caused by the Four Humours
    • People knew that it transferred between people.
• Treatments:
  • Many treatments were similar to the Black Death
  • Most people with the disease were quarantined 
  • There were some new treatments:
    • The theory transference meant that people tried to transfer the disease to something else, like a bird
    • People also thought that they could sweat the disease out, so people would wrap up in thick blackets and put up fires

• Government Action:
• A real difference between 1665 & 1348 was the greater reaction with by the local councils
• They were ordered by the King to try and stop the plague from spreading
  • Theatres were closed
  • Large gatherings were banned
  • Dogs & cats were killed
  • Streets were regularly cleaned
  • Barrels of tar were burned in the streets
  • Everyday, carts collected the dead who were then burried
  • A household was boarded into its home for 28 days 
  • If a member who caught the plague, the household was taken to the pest house
  • Days of fasting and public prayers were ordered

• Harvey researched Vesalius' theory, which contradicted Galen.
• He proved that Vesalius was right, using dissected bodies, that blood flowed one way.
• He proved that blood could not be produced by the liver and absorbed into the body.
• He was influenced by new technology-water pumps, representing how a body works.
• He discovered that veins and arteries were part of one system which was pumped by the heart around the body.

• He was one of James I's doctors and he carried out dissections.
• He taught the importance of doctors observing and recording symptoms.
• He discovered the process of blodd circulation.
• He proved that some of Galen's ideas were wrong and questioned his other theories.
• By 1700's, his work was taught in medical schools.
• Harvey's work gained publicity and credibility and inspired others to find out more.
• His method of observation and use of dissection had results, therefore copied by others.
• His discoveries lef unanswered questions which encouraged further experiments.