Attachment studies

AIM

To investigate the age at which specific attachments developed

PROCEDURE

Studied 60 babies from Glasgow at monthly intervals for the first 18 months of life using a longitudinal method. Children were all studied in their own homes and visited monthly for approximately one year.

FINDINGS

Being sensitive and responsive is more instrumental in attachment development.

Four distinct stages of developmental progress that characterise infants’ attachments: Asocial stage 0-6 weeks Indiscriminate attachments (6 weeks – 6 months) Specific (7 months +) Multiple (10/11 months +) 

EVALUATION POINTS 

• Low population validity. The infants in the study all came from Glasgow and were mostly from working class families.
• Small sample size of 60 families reduces the strength of the conclusion we can draw from the study.
• Accuracy of data Parents were keeping daily diaries.A diary like this is also very unreliable with demand characteristics and social desirability.
• The study lacks historical validity. It was conducted in the 1960s when gender roles were different
• High external validity. Shaffer and Emerson conducted the observations in each child’s own home which means that the children and parents were more likely to act naturally. Therefore, the study has good external validity as the results are likely to apply to other children from a similar demographic in their own homes. 

AIM

Investigated the mechanisms of imprinting where the youngsters follow and form an attachment to the first large movng onject that they meet 

PROCEDURE

Lorenz conducted an experiment in which goslings were hatched either with their mother or in an incubator. Once goslings had hatched, they proceeded to follow the first moving object that they saw between 13 & 16 hours after hatching; in this case, Lorenz.

FINDINGS

It supports the view that having a biological basis for an attachment is adaptive as it promotes survival.

This would explain why goslings imprint after a matter of minutes due to their increased mobility

EVALUATION POINTS

• The fact that the goslings studies imprinted irreversibly so early in life, suggests that this was operating within a critical period, which was underpinned by biological changes. The longevity of the goslings’ bond with Lorenz would support the view that, on some level, early attachment experiences do predict future bonds. Attachment formation under biological control 
• High internal validity 
• Results cannot be generalised to humans, it is questionable whether findings and conclusions can be extrapolated and applied to complex human behaviours. It is unlikely that observations of goslings following a researcher or rhesus monkeys clinging to cloth-covered wire models reflects the emotional connections and interaction that characterises human attachments.

AIM

to study the mechanisims by which newborn rhesus monkeys bond with their mothers 

PROCEDURE

Harlow conducted research with 8 rhesus monkeys which were caged from infancy with wire mesh food dispensing and cloth-covered surrogate mothers, to investigate which of the two alternatives would have more attachment behaviours directed towards it.

Harlow measured the amount time that monkeys spent with each surrogate mother and the amount time that they cried for their biological mother.

FINDINGS

Harlow’s findings revealed that separated infant rhesus monkeys would show attachment behaviours towards a cloth-covered surrogate mother when frightened, rather than a food-dispensing surrogate mother. monkeys in isolation with the surrogate mothers all displayed dysfunctional adult behaviour,

EVALUATION POINTS 

• The rhesus monkeys’ willingness to seek refuge from something offering comfort rather than food would suggest that food is not as crucial as comfort when forming a bond. Disputes learning theory.
• Humans and monkeys are similar - Green (1994) states that, on a biological level at least, all mammals (including rhesus monkeys) have the same brain structure as humans; the only differences relates to size and the number of connections. Although, cannot be generalised 
• Important practical applications - Harlow’s research has profound implications for childcare. Due to the importance of early experiences on long-term development, it is vital that all of children’s needs are catered for; taking care of a child’s physical needs alone is not sufficient.

AIM

To investigate reciprocity between infants and their caregivers.

PROCEDURE

Conducted a series of controlled observations using babies (aged 6 to 27 days old) and 12 babies (aged 16-21 days old). They were exposed to four different stimuli, three facial gestures (e.g. sticking tongue out) and one manual gesture.

FINDINGS

There was a clear association between the infants’ behaviour and that of the adult model.

EVALUATION POINTS

• Questionable reliability of testing children. This is because infants move their mouths and wave their arms constantly, which is an issue for researchers investigating intentional behaviour. Therefore, we cannot be certain that the infants were actually engaging in interactional synchrony or reciprocity, as some of the behaviour may have occurred by chance.
• Recent research has found that only securely attached infants engage in interactional synchrony. Isabella et al. (1989) found that the more securely attached the infant, the greater the level of interactional synchrony. This suggests that not all children engage in interactional synchrony and that Meltzoff and Moore’s original findings may have overlooked individual differences which could be a mediating factor.
• Use of inter rater reliability 
• System of video cameras to record the experiment 

AIM 

to identify and catagorise infant attachment styles

PROCEDURE

Used 4 criteria (separation/ stranger anxiety, reunion behaviour & willingness to explore the room) to classify 100 middle class American infants into 1 of 3 categories. Children were observed through a one-way mirror and were classed as one of the 3 attachment types based on their responses to the 8 pre determined stages

FINDINGS

70% secure 15% insecure avoidant 15% insecure resistant. Most US children appeared to be securely attached.highlighting the role of the mother’s behaviour in determining the quality of attachment.

EVALUATION POINTS

• Replicable  - the research is highly operationalised, observers have a clear view of how a securely attached infant should behave, due to the 4 specific criteria that Ainsworth used. For this reason, the research should have high inter-observer reliability & it is also replicable so its reliability can be checked

• Low population vailidity - The sample was restricted to 100 middle class Americans & their infants, so it is unlikely that findings would be representative of the wider population.

• Culturally biased - The Strange situation was designed by an American according to observations of US children. Consequently, the criteria used to classify infants are based on US values, relating to child-parent behaviour. It could be argued that this is Eurocentric, so observations of non-Americans will judged according to American standards

AIM

To investigate the effects of early institutionalisation and deprivation on future developement

PROCEDURE

In 2007 Rutter he assessed children reared in profoundly depriving institutions in Romania and subsequently adopted into UK families. Institutionally deprived adoptees were compared at 11 years with children who had not experienced institutional deprivation and who had been adopted within the UK before the age of 6 months. Parental reports, a modified Strange Situation and investigator ratings of the children’s behaviour were all assessed.

FINDINGS

Found that the sooner the children were adopted the faster their developmental progress. Disinhibited attachment was strongly associated with institutional rearing but there was not a significant increase in relation to duration of institutional deprivation beyond the age of 6 months. 

EVALUATION POINTS

• Research support– There is a large body of evidence which supports the concept of the critical period and the importance of early intervention where children are being privated. Rutter’s research is consistent with Bowlby and Harlow (58). More recent neurological evidence supports the damaging effects that privation can have on specific brain structures (Chugani 2001)
• Chugani administered PET scans to a sample of 10 children adopted from Romanian orphanages and compared them with 17 normal adults and a group of 7 children. Concluded that the dysfunction in these brain regions such as the amygdala and brain stem may have resulted from the stress of early deprivation and might be linked to the long-term cognitive and behavioural deficits.
• Real-life Application-We have a better understanding of the effects of Institutionalization. This understanding has lead to improvements to how children are cared for. For example, having a defined number of caregivers, instead of a large rotated amount.

AIM

To investigate the long-term effects of maternal deprivation.

PROCEDURE

He selected an opportunity sample of 88 children attending his clinic. Group 1- thief group. Group 2- control group. The two groups were matched for age and IQ. The children and their parents were interviewed and tested by a psychiatrist, a psychologist and a social worker focusing specifically on their early life experiences.

FINDINGS

14/44 children from the theft group were identified as affectionless psychopaths, 12 of those had experienced prolonged separation of more than six months from their mothers in their first two years of life. Only 5/ 30 children not classified as affectionless psychopaths had experienced separations. 2/44 children in the control group  had experienced prolonged separations and none of them were affectionless psychopaths.

EVALUATION POINTS

• Bowlby's Maternal Deprivation is supported by Harlow's research. He showed that monkeys reared in isolation from their mother suffered emotional and social problems in older age. 

• Practical real life application - In maternity units mothers are now allowed to spend more time with their babies as well as if they have a sick child the visiting hours in hospital have been extended, parents can even stay overnight if they wish.

• Psychodynamic reductionism - Bowlby focused exclusively on these psychodynamic factors and underplayed other influences on development, for example poverty. Criminality and psychopathic behaviour are complex phenomena with many causal factors.

• Generalisability - Bowlby’s participants were not a representative group because they constituted a small opportunity sample recruited from a single child guidance clinic in London. The results may not generalise well from the 1930s and 1940s to the twenty-first century because criminality, child-rearing and attitudes to childhood in general have all changed greatly in the intervening decades.

AIM

To investigate if attachment styles are universal across cultures, or culturally specific due to traditions, the social environment, or beliefs about children

PROCEDURE

Analysed data from other studies using a method called meta analysis. Data from 32 studies in 8 different countries was analyzed. All the 32 studies used the strange situation procedure to study attachment. They calculated the average percentage for the different attachment styles in each country.

FINDINGS

Found that secure attachment was the majority of infants 70%. The lowest percentage of secure attachments was in China, and the highest in GB. Western countries that support independence e.g Germany had high levels of insecure avoidant. Eastern countries that are more culturally close e.g Japan had quite high levels of insecure resistant. China had an equal number of avoidant and resistant infants.

EVALUATION POINTS

• Biased samples - Cannot claim to be representative of each culture. For example, only 36 infants where used in the Chinese study which is a very small sample size for such a populated country. Also most of the studies analyzed where from Western cultures.
• The Strange Situation was created and tested in the USA, which means that it may be culturally biased ethnocentric as it will reflect the norms and values of American culture. This is a problem as it assumes that attachment behavior has the same meaning in all cultures, when in fact cultural perception and understanding of behavior differ greatly. For example, the belief that attachment is related to anxiety on separation. This may not be the case in other cultures, e.g. Japan.
• There is significant variation of attachments within cultures: Van Ijzendoorn looked at multiple studies in each country, and found that every study produced different levels of each attachment classification. This intra-cultural variation suggests that it is an over simplification to assume all children are brought up in the same way in particular country.

AIM

To see if there is a correlation between an infant's attahcment type and their approach to future romantic relationships

PROCEDURE

The love quiz consisted of two components: a measure of attachment types and a love experience questionnaire. They measured the attachments by having a simple checklist of childhood relationships with parents. The questionnaire assessed individuals belief about romantic love. The love quiz was printed in a local newspaper. They analyzed the first 620 replies sent in from people aged 14-82. They classified the repondents according to Ainsworth's infant attachment types and looked for corresponding adult love styles.

FINDINGS

Found that 56% of respondents were classfied as secure 25% as insecure avoidant and 19% as insecure resistant. There was a strikingly high correlation between the infant attachment types and adult love styles.

EVALUATION POINTS

• This supports Bowlby’s idea of an internal working model as it clearly shows that early attachment experiences can affect later adult relationships, through the internal working model.
• Self report - Participants may not have given truthful answers due to social desirability bias.
• Limitations of volunteer sampling - Attracts a certain profile of person 
• Retrospective data - Participants recalling info about events in their infancy, memories may not be accurate. Lacks validity.