Unit 1

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  • Created by: sally
  • Created on: 09-05-13 17:41
What is a dipolar molecule?
A molecule with one side positively charged and the other negatively charged.
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What is the attraction called between negative oxygen and postivie hydrogen atoms?
Hydrogen bonding.
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What is cohesion?
The ability to stick together.
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What charge does an oxygen atom have?
Negative.
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What charge does a hydrogen atom have?
Hydrogen.
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Carbohydrates are made from long chains of what?
Monosaccharides
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What bond is between monosaccharides?
Glycosidic
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What reaction joins molecules together and what is released?
Condensation and water
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What reaction and molecule breaks glycosidic bonds?
Hydrolysis
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When two monosaccahrides join together they are called?
Disaccharide
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What makes maltose and what bonds are present?
Alpha glucose + alpha glucose and 1-4 bonds.
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What makes maltose and what bonds are present?
Beta glucose and galactose and 1-4 bonds.
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What makes sucrose and what bonds are present?
Alpha glucose and fructose and 1-2 bonds.
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What is a polysaccharide?
More than two monosccaharides join together.
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What makes amylopectin and what bonds are present?
Long chain of alpha glucose with 1-4 and 1-6 bonds present.
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What makes glycogen and what bonds are present?
Long chain of alpha glucose with 1-4 an 1-6 bonds present.
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What is the structure and function of starch?
The main energy storage material in plants. Made of Amylose - unbranched, coiled, compact 1-4 bonds and Amylopectin, branched 1-4 an 1-6 bonds.
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What is the structure and function of glycogen?
The main energy storage in animals. Long chain of alpha glucose, branched, compact, insoluble, large, 1-4 and 1-6 bonds.
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What is a triglyceride made of?
One molecule of glycerol with three fatty acids.
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What bonds are present in lipids?
Ester bonds.
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What is the structure of saturated fats and where are they found?
No double bonds in the hydrocarbon tail and found in animal fats.
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What is the structure of unsaturated fats and where are they found?
They have double bonds and found in plants.
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What makes a unsaturated fat, polyunsaturated?
Has two or more double bonds in the hydrocarbon tail.
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Proteins are made from long chains of?
Amino acids.
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What is a dipeptide?
When two amino acids join together.
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What is a polypeptide?
When two or more amino acids join together.
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What is the structure of an amino acid?
A carboxyl group, amino group, hydrogen atom an variable group attached to a carbon atom.
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What bonds are present in amino acids?
Peptide bonds.
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What is the primary structure of a protein?
The sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain.
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What is the secondary structure of a protein and what bond/s are present?
An alpha helix or beta pleated sheet with hydrogen bonds present/
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What is the tertiary structure of a protein and what bond/s are present?
Coiled are folded further, for a single polypeptide chain this is their 3D structure. Disulphide and hydrogen bonds are present.
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What is the quaternary structure of a protein and what bond/s are present?
The way several polypeptide chains assemble together, all previous bonds are present.
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Describe the structure of a globular protein?
Round, compact, coiled, soluble so easily transported.
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Describe the structure of a fibrous protein?
Long insoluble tightly coiled chains, lots of bonds which makes it strong and forms a rope shape.
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What is an enzyme?
Biological catalyst and a globular protein.
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How do enzymes lower activation energy?
Enzymes hold molecules closer together, reducing repulsion. In a breakdown reaction it puts strain on the active site making it easier for the molecule to break down.
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What two models are use for enzymes?
Lock and key and Induced fit.
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What does the right side of the heart do?
Pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs.
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What does the left side of the heart do?
Pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body.
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What do valves do?
Prevent blood flowing the wrong way.
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Describe the structure and function of an artery?
Carry blood from the heart to the rest of the body. Thick walled, muscular and elastic tissue, folded endothelium.
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Describe the structure and function of a vein?
Take blood back to the heart, they are wide and contain valves.
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Describe the structure and function of a capillary?
Metabollic exchange occurs here, one cell thick.
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What are the ethical issues involved in using invertebrates?
They cant give consent, may be used in painful procedures.
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What is diastole?
Relaxation
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What is systole?
Contraction.
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What happens in ventricular diastole and atrial systole?
Ventricles are relaxed, AV valves open and SL valves closed. Atria contract.
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What happens in ventricular systole and atrial diastole?
Atria are relaxed. Ventricles contract. AV valves closed and SL valves open.
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What happens in ventricular diastole and atrial diastole?
Ventricles and atria are relaxed. SL valves closed, AV valves open.
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How does an atheroma form?
Damage occurs to the endothelium, there is an inflammatory response. White blood cells and lipids form fatty deposits which build up.
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What causes atherosclerosis?
The hardening of arteries caused by atheromas.
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How can atheromas increase risk of thrombosis in arteries?
If they rupture, they damage the artery wall and leave it rough and triggers thrombosis.
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How does a blood clot form?
Thromboplastin is released from the damaged blood vessel, it triggers the conversion of prothrombin into thrombin. Thrombin causes fibrinogen into fibrin. Fibrin creates a mesh which platelets and red blood cells get trapped.
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What is coronary heart disease?
When coronary arteries have lots of atheromas.
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What factors increase the risk of CVD?
Diet, high blood pressure, smoking and inactivity.
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What factors that increase the risk of CVD can we not control?
Gender, age and genetics.
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What are HDL's?
They are mainly protein, transport cholesterol from the body to the liver where it is excreted. They reduce cholesterol when it is too high.
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What are LDL's?
They are mainly lipid, transport cholesterol from the liver to where it is needed. They increase cholesterol when the level is too low.
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What are antihypertensives and their benefits and risks?
They reduce high blood pressure, they can be monitored at home but can cause palpiations and headaches.
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What are plant statins and their benefits and risks?
They reduce cholesterol, reduce the risk of developing CVD but can reduce absorption of vitamins in the gut.
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What are anticoagulants and their benefits and risks?
They reduce the formation of blood clots, can help treat people who already have CVD but can damage a fetus, cause swelling.
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What are platelet inhibitory drugs and their benefits and risks?
They reduce the formation of blood clots, can help treat people who already have CVD can cause rashes, nausea.
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What is a glycoprotein?
A protein with a carbohydrate tail attached.
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What is a glycolipid?
A lipid with a polysaccharide chain attached.
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What happens to membrane permeability at temperatures below 0?
Channel and carrier proteins deform increasing permeability.
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What happens to membrane permeability at temperatures between 0-45?
The phospholipids have more energy and therefore move more and increases permeability.
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What happens to membrane permeability at temperatures above 45?
The phospholipid bilayer starts to melt, carrier and channels proteins deform increasing permeability.
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What is diffusion?
Movement of particles from a high concentration to a low concentration.
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What is meant by diffusion being a passive process?
No energy is needed.
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What is osmosis?
Diffusion of water molecules across a partially permeable membrane from a high concentration to a low concentration.
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What two things are used in facilitated diffusion?
Carrier and channel proteins.
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What are the functions of a carrier protein?
Move large molecules as they attach to it it changes shape and releases it on the other side.
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What are the functions of a channel protein?
They allow charged particles to diffuse down the concentration gradient.
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What is active transport?
The use of channel proteins to move molecules and ions against the concentration gradient using energy.
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What is endocytosis?
Where a cell surrounds a substance with a section of its membrane and pinches off to form a vesicle inside the cell.
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What is exocytosis?
This is where a cell secretes a substance as it moves to the membrane and fuses with it, the contents are then released.
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What is the structure of DNA?
Phosphate. a sugar and a nitrogenous base.
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What bases are present in DNA?
Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine and Guanine.
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What bases are present in RNA?
Adenine, Uracil, Cytosine and Guanine.
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What bond holds the bases together?
Hydrogen.
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What happens during semi-conservative replication?
Hydrogen bonds are broken and the helix unzips, free floating mononucleotides join by complementary base pairing, DNA polymerase joins the strands together so each stand has one original and one new strand.
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What happens in transcription?
The hydrogen bonds break, one of the strands is used as a template called the antisense strand, free RNA mononucleotides join with the bases forming mRNA, it then forms a helix and leaves the nucleus .
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What happens in translation?
The mRNA attaches to the ribosome and tRNA carries amino acids to the ribosome, tRNA attaches to mRNA using complementary pair basing and move along the strand and moves away until there is a stop signal. The protein then moves away from the ribosome
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What is a gene?
A sequence of bases on a DNA molecule that code for a protein.
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What is an allele?
A different version of a gene.
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What is genotype?
The alleles a person has.
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What is phenotype?
The characteristics a person has.
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What is meant by dominant?
An allele whose characteristic appears even if there is only one copy.
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What is meant by recessive?
An allele whose characteristic appears if two copies are present.
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What is homozygote?
An organism that carries two copies of the same allele/
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What is heterozygote?
An organism that carries two different alleles.
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What is a carrier?
A pe rson with one recessive and one dominant allele.
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What is a mutation?
Changes to the base sequence of DNA.
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What is monohybrid inheritance?
The inheritance of a single characteristic controlled by different alleles.
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What is a genetic pedigree diagram?
Shows how traits run in families.
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What causes CF?
A mutation in the gene that codes for the CFTR protein. It is a carrier protein that carries chloride into mucus to make it watery.
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How does CF affect the body?
Mucus build up in airways, increased lung infections. Inhibits enzyme production and absorption of nutrients.
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What is genetic screening?
Analysing DNA to see if it contains alleles for genetic disorders.
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What is identification of carriers?
Offered to individuals with a family history of genetic disorders, couples can be teste before having children.
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What is PGD?
Screening of embryos that are created using IVF.
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What is amniocentesis?
Prenatal testing carried out at 15-16 weeks of pregnancy. Amniotic fluid is taken using a fine needle and then the cells are analysed.
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What is CVS?
Prenatal testing carried out at 8-12 weeks of pregnancy. Samples of chorionic villi are taken using a fine needle and then the cells are analysed.
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What are the issues with prenatal testing?
It can be seen as unethical to abort, increases miscarriage risk by 1% and can create wrong results.
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What is gene therapy?
Altering alleles inside cells to cure genetic disorders.
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What is somatic therapy?
Changing alleles in the body cells that are most affected.
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What is germ line therapy?
Changing the alleles in sex cells so every offspring from that cell wont suffer from the disorder.
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What is the attraction called between negative oxygen and postivie hydrogen atoms?

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Hydrogen bonding.

Card 3

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What is cohesion?

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Card 4

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What charge does an oxygen atom have?

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Card 5

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What charge does a hydrogen atom have?

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