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6. Actuarialism

  • Solomon
  • Feeley and Simon
  • Farrington and West
  • Clarke

7. Reintergrative shaming

  • Braithwaite
  • Garland
  • Clarke
  • Newman

8. Retributive and restorative justice/ public and physical punishment

  • Cohen
  • Wilson and Kelling
  • Durkhiem
  • Garland

9. Harsher prison terms

  • Solomon
  • Clarke

10. 'Discipline' over social control/ panopticon/ subtle forms of punishment

  • Sherman and Strang
  • Foucault
  • Solomon

11. 'defensible space'

  • Felson and Clarke
  • Garland
  • Newman
  • Clarke

12. Penal welfarism/ culture of control

  • Solomon
  • Clarke
  • Garland
  • Wilson and Kelling

13. 'Situational crime prevention'/ costs vs. risk/ target hardening

  • Clarke
  • Braithwaite
  • Cohen
  • Farrington and West