Relationships

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The formation of romantic relationships
The initial stages of relationships are based purely on aspects of similarity or self-interest.
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Byrne and Clore - Reward/Need Satisfaction Theory (1970)
We are attracted to those who we find satisfying or gratifying. Rewarding is through offerings conditioning, whilst attraction is through classical conditioning. We associate pleasant feelings with our partner.
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Byrne, Clore and Smeaton - Similarity (1986)
People are more likely to be attracted to others who have similar personality traits. They look for those with similar personality and attitudes.
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Griffitt and Guay (1969)
Participants are evaluated on the creative task by the experimenter and then asked about how much they liked the experimenter. Those who had been rated highly by the experimenter, rated the experimenter highly, showing operant conditioning.
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Hays (1985)
We gain satisfaction from giving as well as receiving.
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Rosenbaum (1986)
Suggested that dissimilarity rather than similarity was the more important factor in determining whether a relationship will form.
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Issues, Debates and Arguments (IDA)
Behavioural - limited as it doesn't explore higher motivations, Mundane Realism - most of the studies are laboratory and lack mundane realism, Reductionist - reduces it to two explanations and doesn't consider bodily attraction.
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The maintenance of romantic relationships
The maintenance of relationships depends on the two individuals working together as a team.
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Thibaut and Kelley - Social Exchange Theory (1959)
This theory is based upon exchanges between partners. It looks at profits and loss, and both partners aim to achieve profits. Individuals also develop a comparison level to see whether they will achieve more profits or losses.
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Walster et al - Equity Theory (1978)
Developed on the social exchange theory, are we learn that people strive to achieve fairness in their relationships and feel distressed if they perceive unfairness. Equity is based upon the individuals in the relationship.
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Duck and Sants (1983)
Social exchange theory focuses too much on the individual's perspective and ignoring the social aspects of a relationship, such as how partners communicate and interpret shared events.
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Clark and Mills (1979)
Disagreed with the claim that all relationships are based on economics. Although exchange relationships may involve keeping track of rewards and costs, communal relationships are governed more by a desire to respond to the needs of the partner.
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DeMaris (2007)
Using 1500 couples in the US, he found that the only subjective index of inequity associated with disruption is women's sense of being under-benefitted, with greater under-benefit raising the risk of divorce.
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Issues, Debates & Arguments (IDA)
Gender - research suggests that women judge inequity differently to men, Cultural - differing cultu
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The breakdown of relationships
In our culture, relationships are considered successful if partners stay together, and those relationships that end prematurely are considered failures.
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Duck (1999)
Relationships may end for three reasons: lack of skills, lack of stimulation or maintenance difficulties. Skills - when the individual lacks interpersonal skills appearing not interested. Stimulation - no change or development in relationship.
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Rollie and Duck (2006)
A model of the breakdown of relationships. Breakdown > Intrapsychic processes > Dyadic processes > Social processes > Grave-dressing processes > Resurrection processes.
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Cina et al (2003)
Compared 50 couples (average length of relationship 12 years) who received CCET training with a control group who didn't. CCET group reported much higher marital quality after training compared to the control group.
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Rohlfing (1995)
70% of students sampled had experienced at least one long distance romantic relationship and 90% said they had experienced one long-distance friendship.
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Tashiro and Frazier (2003)
Undergraduates had experienced emotional distress but also personal growth in break ups. Grave-dressing and resurrection processes meant they were able to put the original relationship to rest and get on with their lives.
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Issues, Debates and Arguments (IDA)
Gender - women are more likely to stress unhappiness and incompatibility as reasons for breaking up, Ethical - sensitive area of research which may create vulnerability for the participant and privacy/confidentiality, Reductionist - affairs, etc?
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Sexual selection
Our ancestors had to select the right mate, compete against sexual rivals and then engage in all the right behaviours for successful conception and child rearing.
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Darwin (1874)
Intrasexual - typically males compete with each other to gain access to members of the other sex. Intersexual - this form of selection involves the preferences of one sex for members of the opposite sex who possess certain qualities (height/money/etc
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Buss (1989)
Women desired men who had good financial prospects, whilst men wanted those who were physically attractive and were younger. Both sexes wanted those who are intelligent, kind and dependable.
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Buss (1989)
In a study of actual marriages in 29 cultures, he confirmed that men do choose younger women. In fact, men who divorce and remarry tend to marry women who are increasingly younger than they are.
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Kenrick et al (1996)
Teenage males are most attracted to women who are five years older than them, despite the fact that such women usually show no interest in them.
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Clarke and Hatfield (1989)
Men tend to lower their standards in short-term mating. 0% of females agreed to have sex with the stranger, whilst 75% of males agreed to have sex.
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Issues, Debates and Arguments (IDA)
Gender - women may also be interested in short-term mating for producing genetically diverse children, Nature - developed specific techniques from our ancestors, Free will - individuals have the choice over their partner and love life.
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Parental investment
Defined as 'any investment by a parent in an offspring that increases the chance that the offspring will survive at the expense of that parent's ability to invest in any other offspring'.
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Daly and Wilson (1978)
By expending a relatively large part of their reproductive effort on courtship and mating, males of most species can afford to devote rather little, in comparison, to parental care.
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Buss et al (1992)
Male US students indicated more concerned about sexual infidelity, whereas female students expressed more concern about emotional infidelity.
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Trivers (1974)
There may be conflict between the parent and child with regards to when it should be weaned. Also, parents encourage children to value siblings more than they are naturally inclined to.
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Lalumière et al (1996)
Parents steer sibling along different developmental paths, maximising each individual strengths, so that there is reduced sibling competition and also less subsequent competition for the same mates.
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Andrews (2006)
Found that severe suicide attempt was significantly more common among middle-born children compare to firstborn and lastborn. Middle-born children need to make such risky attempts in order to extort increased investment from their parents.
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Issues, Debates and Arguments (IDA)
Evolutionary - child performs extreme acts to gain attention from their parents, Gender - women will always carry more PI but doesn't consider same-sex parents or surrogates.
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The influence of childhood and adolescent experiences on adult relationships
Childhood provides us with many different experiences, each of which shapes how we interact with the world when we are older. Although everybody's childhood is unique, psychologists have identified persistent themes in childhood experiences that pred
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Bowlby (1969)
Later relationships are likely to be a continuation of the attachment styles (secure or insecure) because the behaviour of the infants' primary attachment figure promote an internal working model of relationships, infants expect same in relationships
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Fraley (1998)
Conducted a meta-analysis of studies, finding correlations from 0.10 to 0.50 between early attachment types and later relationships. Fraley suggested that one reason for low correlations may be because insecure-anxious attachment is more unstable.
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Simpson et al (2007)
A longitudinal study. Children's attachment behaviour was examined at 1, 6, 16 and 25. Those who were securely attached as infants were more expressive and emotionally attached to eir romantic partners in early adulthood.
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Madsen (2001)
Tested the effects of dating behaviour in adolescence (15-17) on the quality of young adult romantic relationships (20-21). Moderate or low dating frequency predicted higher quality young adult relationships.
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Roisman et al (2004)
No effect of romantic experiences at age 20 on romantic relationship at age 30, suggesting that there is no consistent evidence that adolescent romantic relationships are the 'building blocks' of adult relationships.
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Issues, Debates and Arguments (IDA)
Deterministic - suggests that your childhood will definitely impact later relationships, Sample - most samples from these studies are from Us and are small samples, Ethical - sensitive area with those with attachment disorders.
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Relationships in different cultures
There are many differences between differing cultures, as our cultural stories of love and friendship structure differ particular in western and non-western countries.
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Moore and Leung (2001)
They compared 212 Anglo Australian students and 106 Chinese Australian students. 61% of the Anglo Australian students were in a romantic relationship, compared to 38% of Chinese students. Chinese males were just as romantic as the females.
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Toomey (1986)
In collectivist cultures, such as Japan, there are specific rules about giftgiving and reciprocating, whereas no such formal laws exist in Western cultures. In individualist cultures, reciprocatory in personal relationships tend to be voluntarily.
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Myers et al (2005)
Studied individuals in India living in arranged marriages. No differences in marital satisfaction were found when compared to individuals in a non-arranged marriages in US.
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Xiahoe and Whyte (1990)
A study of women in Chengdu, China, Found that women who had married for love felt better about their marriages (regardless of duration) than women who experienced arranged marriages.
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Argyle et al (1986)
Examines relationship rules in the UK, Italy, Hong Kong and Japan. They found the different rules, but there were also important similarities. All cultures acknowledged the importance of relationship rules such as showing courtesy and respect.
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Issues, Debates and Arguments (IDA)
Culture - shows clear influence of cultures in relationships, Deterministic - suggests that particular cultures will react in particular ways in relationships, Nurture - all depends on the parents and how their views of relationships influence child.
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Other cards in this set

Card 2

Front

We are attracted to those who we find satisfying or gratifying. Rewarding is through offerings conditioning, whilst attraction is through classical conditioning. We associate pleasant feelings with our partner.

Back

Byrne and Clore - Reward/Need Satisfaction Theory (1970)

Card 3

Front

People are more likely to be attracted to others who have similar personality traits. They look for those with similar personality and attitudes.

Back

Preview of the back of card 3

Card 4

Front

Participants are evaluated on the creative task by the experimenter and then asked about how much they liked the experimenter. Those who had been rated highly by the experimenter, rated the experimenter highly, showing operant conditioning.

Back

Preview of the back of card 4

Card 5

Front

We gain satisfaction from giving as well as receiving.

Back

Preview of the back of card 5
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