Psychology - Research Methods - Flashcards in A Level and IB Psychology

Experimental Method

A method which uses random allocation of participants and the manipulation of variables to determine cause and effect on dependent variables.

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Independent Variable (IV)

The factor manipulated by a researcher in an investigation

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Dependent Variables (DV)

The factor measured by researchers in an investigation

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Operationalisation

The process of defining variables into measurable factors

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Extraneous Variables

Variables other than the IV that can affect the DV. They should be identified and controlled prior to an investigation. There are two types; participant and situational.

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Participant Variables

Differences between people which could affect how they perform in a study e.g. age and IQ

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Situational Variables

Differences in the environment which can affect how people behave e.g. temperature and noise

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Confounding Variables

Uncontrolled extraneous variables that negatively affect the DV and therefore the results

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Demand Characteristics

Features of a piece of research which allow the participants to work out its aim and/or its hypotheses

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“Screw-you” effect

A demand characteristic where participants change their behaviour to frustrate the aim of the researchers

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“Please-me” effect

A demand characteristic where participants change their behaviour to help the researcher to achieve their aims

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Investigator Effects

A research effect where researcher features influence participants responses e.g. the researchers age, gender and attractiveness

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Laboratory experiment

An experiment conducted in a controlled environment, allowing the researcher to establish cause and effect.

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Field Experiment

Experiment conducted in a naturalistic environment where the researchers manipulate the IV

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Natural experiment

Experiment where the IV occurs naturally e.g. mental illness

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Quasi experiment

Experiment where the researcher is unable to freely manipulate the IV or to randomly allocate the participants to different conditions e.g. male/female

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Ecological Validity

Whether or not the findings of a study can be applied to explain the behaviour being studied in real life situations.

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Participant Observation

Where the researcher is actively involved in the group being observed

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Non-Participant observation

Researchers remain detached from the group being observed.

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Overt observation

When participants know their behaviour is being watched

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Covert observation

When participants do not know they are being watched

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Naturalistic observation

When participants do not know they are being watched

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Behavioural categories

Dividing target behaviours into subsets through the use of coding systems e.g. aggression into hit, punch, slap

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Observer bias

Observers see what they want or expect to see

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Replication

We need to be able to replicate studies to check if we can get the same findings, if they are reliable.

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Sample bias

When participants are not randomly allocated to conditions there could be participant variables which affect the results.

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Event sampling

Counting the number of times an event/behaviour is shown by an individual

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Time sampling

Counting behaviours in a set time frame

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Inter-rater reliability

More than one observer so results can be compared to check they are coding in the same way

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Pilot study

A practice study to check conditions, coding or questions

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Self-report technique

Participants give information about themselves without researcher interference

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Questionnaires

Self-report method where participants record their on answers to a pre-set list of questions

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Closed questions

Fixed responses e.g. yes/no. They are easy to analyse but lack detail

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Open questions

Participants can answer in their own words, they are hard to analyse but good for detail.

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Quantitative data

Data in the form of numbers which is easy to collate and analyse but can lack a lot of depth and detail.

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Qualitative data

Date in the form of words which is descriptive and full of detail but it is hard to collect and analyse

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Socially desirable responses

Participants may lie to give answers which they believe are more socially acceptable

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Measurement scale

Statements where participants give a level of agreement. Likert scale

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Interviews

A self report method where participants answer questions in face to face situations

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Structured interview

A pre-set list of questions, no training required

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Unstructured interview

It will follow a theme but questions are not set so issues can be clarified, explained and explored. A lot of training is needed

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Semi-structured interview

A combination of structured and unstructured questions giving both quantitative and qualitative data

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Correlational studies

A research method which looks at the relationship between co-variables

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Co-variables

The variables being studied in a correlational analysis

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Positive correlation

As one variable increases, so does the other

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Negative correlation

As one variable increases, the other decreases

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Case study

An in-depth investigation into an individual or small group

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Experimental hypothesis

Predicts that an IV will have an effect on a DV

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Alternative hypothesis

Predicts that one variable will affect another in studies which are not using the experimental method

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Null hypothesis

Predicts that there will be no difference or no relationships between variables in a study

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Directional (one tailed) hypothesis

Predicts the direction of results

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Non-directional (two tailed) hypothesis

Says there will be a difference but does not say which way it will happen

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Aim

A precise statement which outlines why a study is taking place

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Sampling

The process by which a group of participants is chosen to represent the target population

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Target population

The particular group of people who are of interest during an investigation

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Random sampling

Where every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected

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Representative

A sample which has all elements of the target population included which means that you can generalise the results

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Generalise

Applying the results of a study to the rest of the target population in real life

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Opportunity sampling

Where the researcher uses members of the target population who are willing and available

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Pilot study

Small scale practical investigation done before the main study to check for any problems with the method

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Independent groups

An experimental design which uses different participants for each of the different conditions within the experiment

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Order effects

Where participants performance is affected by boredom (fatigue effects) so it gets worse or their performance improves because of past experience (practice effect)

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Demand characteristics

Where clues are picked up on so the participants guess the aim of the research

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Repeated measures

Where the same participants do all conditions of the experiment

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Matched pairs

Different participants do the different conditions of the experiment but they are matched on key variables so their results are treated as though they came from one person. Twins are often used.

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Informed consent

Where participants know they aim of a study and exactly what is expected of them before they agree to take part. Parental or guardians consent is needed for under 16’s and for vulnerable adults

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Brief

The instructions given before a study when gaining consent, it should make reference to the aim and all ethical issues

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Deception

Researchers should try to avoid deception, if it has been used it should be fully explained in the debrief

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Debreif

Given to participants after a study to fully explain the process, check their well-being and remind them of their ethical rights.

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Protection from harm

Participants should not experience any physical or mental harm from taking part in a study

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Right to withdraw

Participants have the right to withdraw themselves and their data at any time

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Confidentiality

Participants should remain anonymous

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Reliability

The extent to which a test or measure produces predictable results

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Internal reliability

Whether a measure is consistent within itself

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External reliability

Whether the measure is consistent over time

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Split-half method

Measure internal reliability by splitting the test into two and having the same participant completing both halves. If both halves are the same then the test has internal reliability

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Test-retest method

Measures external reliability by giving the same test to the same participant on different occasions and if the same result is obtained the test has external reliability.

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Inter-observer reliability

When observers can show that they are observing and scoring behaviour in the same way

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Validity

The extent to which the results of a study measure what they are supposed to

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Internal validity

Whether any changes to the DV are caused just by the manipulation of the IV and not any confounding variables.

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External Validity

The extent to which the findings of a study can be generalised, the three types are ecological, temporal and population

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Ecological Validity

Whether the research results can be applied to explain the behaviour in real life settings

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Temporal validity

Whether the results of the research would apply in different times

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Population Validity

Whether the sample is a true representation of the target population so that the results can be generalised

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Face validity

A test of validity which refers to the extent to which a test looks like it is measuring what it should

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Concurrent validity

Tests validity by correlating scores on a test with those on another test which has already had its validity established

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Predictive validity

Tests validity by assessing how well a test can predict future behaviour

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The scientific process

A means of acquiring knowledge based, objective, observable, measurable evidence

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Replicability

Being able to repeat a study to check how reliable and valid it is

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Obectivity

Observations made without bias

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Falsification

A scientific theory must be falsifiable, we must be able to prove it wrong

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Inductive phase

The stage of the scientific process where observations yield information which is used to generate theories as explanations

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Deductive phase

The stage of the scientific process where predictions from theories are made into hypotheses. These are then tested by gathering data which is analysed and any theoretical changes can then be made

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Peer Review

Scrutiny by experts of research papers to check they are valid and free from bias

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Single blind review

Names of the researchers remain anonymous

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Double blind review

Names of the researchers and reviewers remain anonymous

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Open review

No anonymity of researchers or reviewers.

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Psychology - Research Methods

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