memory

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What is the capacity, duration and encoding of the sensory register?
capacity: 9-18 items
duration: approximately 250 milliseconds
encoding: modality specific
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What is the capacity, duration and encoding of short term memory?
capacity: 7 +/- 2 items
duration: 18-30 seconds
encoding: acoustic
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What is the capacity, duration and encoding of long term memory?
capacity: potentially unlimited
duration: potentially lifetime
encoding: semantic
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What is the process that transfers information from the sensory register to short term memory?
attention
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What is the process of forgetting information in short term memory?
displacement
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What is the process of forgetting information in long term memory?
decay
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How is information kept in long term memory or transferred from short to long term?
maintenance rehearsal
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What did Baddeley study surrounding the MSM?
how information is coded in short and long term memory
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Procedure of Baddeley's research
75 ppts given 1 of 4 word lists, two were experimental: acoustically/semantically similar, the other two were control lists: acoustically/semantically dissimilar, to test stm ppts saw lists of 5 words and recalled immediately, to test ltm ppts saw lists o
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Findings of Baddeley's research
stm- no difference in recall for acoustically similar vs dissimilar lists, most confusion between acoustically similar (10% recall) than dissimilar words (60-80% recall)
ltm- no difference in recall for semantically similar vs dissimilar lists, most confu
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Conclusion of Baddeley's research
stm encodes information acoustically, ltm encodes information semantically
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Positives of Baddeley's research
+sample size, 79 ppts
+lab experiments, well controlled, avoids extraneous variables
+lab experiments are more repeatable
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Negatives of Baddeley's research
-artificial task, don't learn word lists in real life
-lab experiments lack ecological validity
-independent groups, could be evs or demand characteristics
-may not have been testing ltm (only 20 minutes)
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What did Peterson and Peterson study?
duration of short term memory
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Procedure of Peterson and Peterson's research
24 psychology students had to recall trigrams, to prevent rehearsal ppts had to count back in 3s from a random number until a red light appeared, ppts were asked to recall trigrams after increasing 3s intervals
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Findings of Peterson and Peterson's research
the longer the interval delay the less trigrams recalled, ppts able to recall 80% of trigrams after 3s, after 18s less than 10% of trigrams recalled correctly
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Conclusion of Peterson and Peterson's research
stm has a limited duration when rehearsal is prevented, stm and ltm have different durations, stm duration is 18-30s, after that with no maintenance rehearsal few ppts could recall trigrams because information was displaced
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Positives of Peterson and Peterson's research
+backs up duration of stm in msm
+demonstrates interference
+lab experiment, good control, standardised procedures increase reliability
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Negatives of Peterson and Peterson's research
-artificial task, lacks external validity
-only considered one type of stimuli
-sample was psychology students, demand characteristics, not generalisable
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What did Bahrick study?
long term memory duration (very long term memory)
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Procedure of Bahrick's research
392 american ppts, aged between 17-74, free recall test (all names from high school they could remember), photo recognition task (50 photos from high school yearbook), name recognition task, photo/name matching test
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Findings of Bahrick's research
within 15 years of leaving- 30% accuracy for free recall, 90% accuracy with faces and names
within 48 years of leaving- 80% accuracy for name recognition, 70% accuracy with faces
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Conclusion of Bahrick's research
evidence of vltm up to 57 years after school, as good recall for names as faces (verbal/visual of same level), best performance on recognition tasks, store info in ltm but can't always retrieve it, if given a cue we can access info
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Positives of Bahrick's research
+large varied sample, increases validity
+multiple tested conditions, increases validity
+high level realism, relates to real life setting
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Negatives of Bahrick's research
-familiar faces are specific info, results cannot be generalised to other memory
-american graduates, can't generalise to other populations
-study doesn't distinguish whether memory is worse with age or limited capacity
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What did Sperling study?
capacity of the sensory register
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Procedure of Sperling's research
tachistoscope displayed grid of 12 symbols 4x3 for 50 ms, ppts had to recall as many as possible, partial report technique, 1 of 3 tones (high, medium or low), corresponding to top, middle or bottom line
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Findings of Sperling's research
1st condition- only recall 4 of 12 symbols
2nd condition- just over 3 of 4 symbols
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Conclusion of Sperling's research
iconic store (sensory memory for vision) can retain about 76% of all data recieved
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What did Jacobs study?
capacity of short term memory
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Procedure of Jacob's research
serial digit span technique, ppts given increasing length lists of numbers/letters and asked to recall in correct order, when ppts fail on 50% of tasks they are judged to have reached their capacity
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Findings of Jacob's research
average digit span is 9.3 items for numbers, 7.3 items for letters
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Conclusion of Jacob's research
Miller theorised that we can hold between 5-9 items in stm, chunking rather than individual numbers/letters
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Positives of capacity research
+multiple conditions tested, improved validity
+can observe trends in thought patterns
+lab experiments, easily repeatable tests, well controlled
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Negatives of capacity research
-artificial task, not realistic, lacks ecological validity
-Miller did not complete his own primary research
-repeated measures increases demand characteristics
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(1) Support for the MSM
Point
A strength of the MSM is that there are real life case studies to support the distinction between short and long term memory
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(1) Support for the MSM
Evidence
case study- HM, brain damage caused by operation to remove hippocampus to reduce severe epilepsy, his personality and intellect remained intact but he was unable to form new ltms, in tests of stm he was able to remember info for up to 15 mins
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(1) Support for the MSM
Explain
supports MSM having 2 stores as HM performed well in tests of immediate memory (stm) but was unable to form ltms, if memory was one store this wouldn’t be possible
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(1) Support for the MSM
Link
case studies are difficult to generalise their findings, HM was a unique individual with a unique case of brain damage, conclusions made about him may not be generalised to typical population as they may only be correct for HM, in the typical population t
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(1) Undermine of the MSM
Point
the MSM has been criticised for its over emphasis in the need for maintenance rehearsal to transfer information to ltm
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(1) Undermine of the MSM
Evidence
Craik and Lockhart suggested ltms are created by the processing we choose not maintenance rehearsal, semantic information is processed more deeply by meaning than if it were structurally processed (shallow processing), hence semantic processing endures in
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(1) Undermine of the MSM
Explain
a criticism because the MSM focusses more on maintenance rehearsal and fails to acknowledge the role of elaborative processing (semantic) in forming memories
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(1) Undermine of the MSM
Link
the MSM may not be a valid model of memory because in real life most memories are created by elaborative processing, the MSM may not be useful to explain everyday human behaviour
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(2) Support for the MSM
Point
research into the recall of word lists has shown evidence for different memory stores
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(2) Support for the MSM
Evidence
Murdock’s serial position effect, more words remembered at the beginning (primacy) and the end (recency) of a list, the middle had little to no recall
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(2) Support for the MSM
Explain
words at the beginning had been rehearsed so we’re in ltm, words at the end were still in stm, words in the middle were not rehearsed so we’re forgotten by displacement or decay as the MSM suggests
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(2) Support for the MSM
Link
research was based on an artificial task, we cannot be sure that the results produced are replicable in real life, results cannot be generalised to and used in everyday life, lacks ecological validity
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(2) Criticism for the MSM
Point
too over simplified
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(2) Criticism for the MSM
Evidence
MSM says only acoustic encoding in stm and semantic in ltm, ltm has at least 3 types of memory- episodic, semantic and procedural, WMM may be a better explanation
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(2) Criticism for the MSM
Explain
WMM suggests a multi component system- auditory and visual, in MSM stm can only hold info, WMM stm can retain and process info, WMM suggests that instead of all information going into a single store there are different systems for different types of info
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(2) Criticism for the MSM
Link
WMM may be the better model to explain how stm works in real life, it is likely that our memory is more complex that the MSM suggests, likely that stm and ltm may not be as distinct as they seem
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3 types of long term memory
episodic, semantic and procedural
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Which types of ltm are explicit/implicit?
episodic and semantic- explicit
procedural- implicit
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What does explicit/implicit memory mean?
explicit memories (declarative) are recalled only if consciously thought about, implicit memories (non-declarative) do not require conciliatory thought to be recalled
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What are episodic memories?
memories of specific personal events and their context, influenced by emotions at the time a memory is coded, affected by the degree of processing of info at coding (high processed recalled more easily), help people distinguish the difference between real
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What are semantic memories?
contains all knowledge an individual has learned, stronger if processed more deeply, better sustained over time than episodic memories, over time episodic memories move to semantic with knowledge becoming divorced from the event
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What are procedural memories?
permits individuals to perform learned tasks with little conscious thought, many procedural memories occur early in life, also involved in language helping individuals to speak automatically
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What did Tulving study?
types of long term memory and their localisation (differences in processing of episodic/semantic memory tasks)
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Procedure of Tulving's research
6 volunteers (including himself, his wife and a colleague), injected with radioactive gold, scanned with gamma ray, 8 successive trials- 4 semantic/episodic each for 80s, thought about episodic/semantic topics
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Results of Tulving's research
greater activation in frontal lobes for episodic, anterior temporal for semantic, hippocampus active in both
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(1) Support for types of LTM
Point
research support
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(1) Support for types of LTM
Evidence
Tulving investigated differences in brain activity in episodic vs semantic tasks, injected radioactive gold, scanned ppts with gamma ray, asked episodic/semantic questions
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(1) Support for types of LTM
Explain
greater activity in frontal cortex for episodic, anterior temporal lobes for semantic, localisation of these two are different, must be different forms of memory
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(1) Support for types of LTM
Link
small sample (6 ppts), less reliable as outcome could vary with more people, biased sample, investigator effects, biased interpretation of data, reduced validity
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(2) Support for types of LTM
Point
research support with high ecological validity (case study)
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(2) Support for types of LTM
Evidence
Clive Wearing's brain was attacked by a virus leaving him with amnesia, could still recognise his wife but constantly thought he was gaining consciousness for the first time, remember how to play the piano but not having ever played it
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(2) Support for types of LTM
Explain
supports different types of ltms, can remember his wife (semantic), play the piano (procedural) but no life events, cannot form or access episodic memories but can access semantic and procedural ones, must be different
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(2) Support for types of LTM
Link
case studies are difficult to generalise, very rare case, virus rarely crosses blood barrier to brain, excellent composer before so rare abilities, experience will likely never replicate, little real life value
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(3) Support for types of LTM
Point
good real life application
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(3) Support for types of LTM
Evidence
research such as Baddeley's into encoding of ltm shows semantic info endures in ltm best, emphasises how conscious effort to recall is made easier by words or info which have different semantic meanings
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(3) Support for types of LTM
Explain
students can use studies and research into ltm and its encoding like Baddeley's to help them study, applied to real life so info can be processed in a semantic way eg definitions to make it endure in ltm for exams
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(3) Support for types of LTM
Link
theory may be reductionist, may be a relationship between different types of ltm, could be interlinked and more complex than 3 distinct types
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Undermine for types of LTM
Point
research into types of ltm may be reductionist
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Undermine for types of LTM
Evidence
Tulving studied memory on a biological basis, ppts to recall memories and studied brain activity via scans, observed different activity in different areas
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Undermine for types of LTM
Explain
reducing ltm to a biological basis is reductionist, Tulving failed to consider how episodic and semantic memories are interlinked, memories are closely ties with emotions and Tulving did not research this, could play a part in where memories are recalled
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Undermine for types of LTM
Link
episodic and semantic memories may not be as separate as Tulving suggested, over time episodic memories can become semantic as knowledge becomes divorced from the event it was learned from
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Who proposed the working memory model?
Baddeley and Hitch
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Why was the working memory model proposed?
Baddeley and Hitch argued that memory was more complex than a single temporary stm store for transferring info to ltm, stm is an active store
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What are the components of the working memory model?
Central executive, visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop, the episodic buffer and long term memory
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What is the role of the central executive?
processes info in all sensory forms, directs attention to tasks, allocates tasks to sub-systems, limited capacity- one strand of info at a time
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What are the two parts of the phonological loop?
phonological store and articulating loop
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What is the role of the phonological loop?
dealing with auditory info, limited capacity (what can be spoken in 2s), phonological store- words recently heard, articulating loop- keeping info through sub-vocal repetition
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What are the two parts of the visuospatial sketchpad?
visual cache and the inner scribe
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What is the role of the visuospatial sketchpad?
dealing with visual and spatial information, limited capacity, visual cache- info about form and colour, inner scribe- arrangement and relationship of objects
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When was the episodic buffer added to the model?
2000 (25 years later)
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What is the role of the episodic buffer?
integrates info from all systems, limited capacity, maintains time sequencing with help from ltm, limited capacity
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(1) Support for the WMM
Point
research support for existence of phonological loop
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(1) Support for the WMM
Evidence
Baddeley et al. showed people find it more difficult to remember a list of long than short words (word length effect), finite space for rehearsal in articulatory process, short words can be rehearsed more than long words
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(1) Support for the WMM
Explain
when prevented from rehearsing the words (given interference task with articulatory suppression- eg counting back in 3s) word length effect disappears, articulatory loop cannot be used to remember the words, evidence for phonological loop
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(1) Support for the WMM
Link
artificial task conducted in lab, task and conditions are not reflective of real life, lacks ecological validity
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(2) Support for the WMM
Point
research support for the existence of the visuospatial-spatial sketchpad
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(2) Support for the WMM
Evidence
Baddeley et al. showed ppts had more difficulty doing 2 visual tasks than doing a verbal and visual task at the same time, increased difficulty because two visual tasks compete for the same sub-system whereas verbal/visual is no competition
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(2) Support for the WMM
Explain
2 visual tasks compete for the limited resources of the VSS, evidence for its existence, also evidence for central executive as it can only deal with one strand of info at a time but can switch attention between different inputs of information
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(2) Support for the WMM
Link
contradicted by MSM, stm encodes only acoustically, difficulty with visual tasks because not in the modality specific to stm, as a verbal task was easier to complete
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(3) Support for the WMM
Point
evidence for a dual process has been shown in real life case studies
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(3) Support for the WMM
Evidence
Shallice and Warrington studied KF, suffered brain damage, poor stm ability for sounds, but could process visual information normally and recall letters and digits
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(3) Support for the WMM
Explain
shows different stores in the WMM, KF’s PL was damaged as he struggled remembering auditory info, VSS undamaged as could remember visual stimuli, VSS and PL are distinct and separate with different roles, supports the WMM
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(3) Support for the WMM
Link
unique case study, KF’s brain may be different to a neurotypical one, conclusion of VSS and PL as separate systems may not be accurate for everyone, WMM may not be a valid explanation for everyone
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(4) Support for the WMM
Point
research support for the capacity of the WMM
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(4) Support for the WMM
Evidence
Braver et al. gave ppts tasks involving the CE when having a brain scan, greater activity in the left prefrontal cortex, activity increased as task hit harder
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(4) Support for the WMM
Explain
CE controlled by prefrontal cortex, evidence for existence, activity increased with task difficulty as demands on CE increase it has to work harder to fulfil function, proves limited capacity
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(4) Support for the WMM
Link
Baddeley himself recognised that the CE is the most important but least understood component, needs to be specified more clearly than just ‘attention’, some believe it may itself consist of several components, WMM does not fully explain memory
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What is interference?
info in memory competes causing info to be forgotten
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What are the two types of interference?
proactive and retroactive
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What is proactive interference?
when previously learnt info affects ability to recall new information
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What is retroactive interference?
when recently learnt info affects ability to recall old info
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What did Underwood and Postman study?
(Proactive)
procedure- meta-analysis of other studies
results- if ppts remembered 10 or more lists, after 24 hours they remembered 20% of the new info, if they remembered one list recall was over 70%
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What did Underwood and Postman study?
(Retroactive)
procedure- ppts in two groups, group a learnt word pairs then a second list of word pairs where the second paired word was different, group b only first list of word pairs, both groups asked to recall first list
results- group b recall was more accurate
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What did Muller study?
(Retroactive)
procedure- list of nonsense syllables for 6 mins then asked to recall, one group was given an intervening task of describing a landscape picture
results- if ppts had an intervening task performance was poor, new info of the landscape interfered with older
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What did Baddeley and Hitch study?
(Interference/retrieval delay)
procedure- rugby players asked to recall names of teams they have last played, injuries/suspensions meant some had missed games
results- recall for last game was equally good whether game was played long ago or recently, incorrect recall not due to delay
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What did McGeoch and McDonald study?
(Retroactive)
procedure- ppts given list a (10 adjectives), 10 min rest, list b (synonyms, antonyms, consonant syllables, unrelated adjectives, numbers, or control: no list b)
results- is list b like list a (12%), if list b was nonsense (26%), if list b was numbers (36
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What is the encoding specificity principle (ESP)?
memory most effective if info present at encoding is there at retrieval, cue doesn’t have to be exact, closer=more useful
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What are the two types of retrieval failure?
context-dependent and state-dependent
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What is context-dependent forgetting?
external retrieval cues, when external environment is different at retrieval to encoding
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What is state-dependent forgetting?
internal retrieval cues, when an individual’s internal environment id different at retrieval to encoding
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What is retrieval failure?
explanation for forgetting due to not being able to access stored information
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What is cue-dependent forgetting?
explanation for forgetting due to absence of correct cues
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Research support for ESP
Tulving and Pearlstone
procedure- ppts had to learn 48 words in 12 categories, 2 recall conditions: free recall or cued recall (category names)
results- free recall: 40%, cued recall: 60%
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Research support for context-dependent failure
Golden and Baddeley
procedure- 18 divers, lists of 36 unrelated words of 2/3 syllables, 4 conditions: learn/recall on beach, learn/recall underwater, learn on beach recall underwater, learn underwater recall on beach
results- higher recall in matched co
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Research support for state-dependent forgetting
Goodwin et al.
procedure- 48 male medical students, day 1 training, day 2 testing, 4 groups, sober/sober, intoxicated/intoxicated, sober/intoxicated, intoxicated/sober, 4 tests: avoidance, verbal rote-learning, word-association, picture recognition
resul
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Support for cue dependent forgetting
Point
real life applicational use for research in retrieval failure
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Support for cue dependent forgetting
Evidence
useful when taking exams, revise in conditions as close to exams as possible eg no music timed conditions, context and state dependent recall
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Support for cue dependent forgetting
Explain
variety of other settings, eye witness testimony, eye witnesses can be taken back to the scene of a crime, induce context dependent recall, improves accuracy of memory and therefore statements
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Support for cue dependent forgetting
Link
retrieval cues do not always work, practical issues to put strategies into place, not always possible tot recall in the same context, cue is not always present
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What are the two factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony?
misleading information and leading questions
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How does misleading information affect accuracy of eyewitness testimony?
memories are not accurate ‘snapshots’ of events but a reconstruction, our schemas and expectations ‘fill in the gaps’ by simplifying the processing of info, reconstruction can lead to false memories
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How do leading questions affect accuracy of eyewitness testimony?
response bias- wording of the question doesn’t affect ppt memories but affects how they answer
substitution explanation- wording changes ppts memory
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What did Loftus and Palmer study?
misleading information
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Procedure of Loftus and Palmer
Experiment 1
45 students, clips of traffic accidents, series of questions about the clips, ‘about how fast were the cars going when they…into each other?’, the verb being smashed, collided, hit, bumped or contacted
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Results of Loftus and Palmer
Experiment 1
as intensity of verb used in question increased, so did the speed estimation of the cars
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Why did Loftus and Palmer do a second experiment?
sample of experiment 1 was small, results may not be representative of total population, Loftus increased sample size in experiment 2
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Procedure of Loftus and Palmer
Experiment 2
150 ppts, short film of car accident, no broken glass, asked about speed of cars, some ppts asked ‘smashed’ others ‘hit’, week later given questionnaire including ‘did you see any broken glass?’
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Results of Loftus and Palmer
Experiment 2
ppts were twice as likely to recall false memory if broken glass in ‘smashed’ condition
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Positive evaluation of leading questions affecting EWT
+lab experiments are well controlled
+standardised procedures, question was same for all ppts except verb
+large sample size so increased generalisability
+quantitative data so can be analysed and a pattern observed
+independent measures so less demand c
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Negative evaluation of leading questions affecting EWT
-low population validity in experiment 1, all students
-artificial task
-lab experiments are not reflective of real life
-deception, ppts did not know the real aim, trauma surrounding car accidents
-week gap, may have been post event discussion
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What did Gabbert study?
post event discussion
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Procedure of Gabbert’s research
60 students from University of Aberdeen and 60 adults, watched video of girl stealing money from a wallet, ppts tested either individually (control) or in pairs (co-witness group), co witness group had actually seen different videos, only one had seen th
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Results of Gabbert’s research
71% of co witness group recalled info they had not seen and 60% claimed guilty despite not seeing the crime
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Positive evaluation of Gabbert’s research
+application to real life, eye witness is not reliable, shouldn’t be allowed to discuss
+high population validity, young and older ppts
+proves that post event discussion can alter memory
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Negative evaluation of Gabbert’s research
-lacks ecological validity, may be a lot more info available in real life
-not a high risk situation, lack of consequence, ppts may not have behaved appropriately
-ppts knew they were in a study, demand characteristics
-ethical issues, deception, ppts d
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What did Loftus study?
the weapon focus effect
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Procedure of Loftus’ research
reported findings of Johnson and Scott, ppts waited in lab area, receptionist left, group 1- no weapon, target left holding pen, group 2- weapon, target left holding bloody knife, groups shown 50 photographs to identify the target
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Results of Loftus’ research
those who witnessed the target holding a pen correctly identified them 49% of the time, 33% if a knife, ppts in knife condition more likely to focus on this (weapon focus effect)
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What is the fight of flight response?
when a perceived threat causes a response in the body to either confront the threat or leave the situation
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What is the Yerkes-Dodson law?
a curve that states the relationship between efficacy of memory and stress levels, low/high levels of stress produce lower levels of recall accuracy
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Yuille and Cutshall
procedure- witness to a real life crime, gun shooting outside a gun shop, police interviewed witnesses, 13 interviewed 5 months later
results- recall was accurate, even after long time and two misleading questions
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Valentine and Mesout
procedure- recall of visitors to London Dungeons, ppts wore heart monitor through labyrinth, scared by ‘target person’, later had to identify in a line up
results- ppts in high anxiety state reported fewer correct descriptors of target person, more incorr
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Pickel
procedure- ppts watched a video of a target entering a hairdressing salon with differing threat and surprise weapons: scissors high t/low s, handgun high t/high s, wallet low t/low s, raw chicken low t/high s
results- identification of target was least ac
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Why was the cognitive interview developed?
the standard police interview was insufficient, the CI improves the accuracy of eyewitness recall during interview
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Who proposed the cognitive interview?
Geiselman
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What are the four components of the CI?
mental reinstatement, reporting the event from different perspectives, describing the event in several orders, reporting everything
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How does mental reinstatement improve accuracy of EWT?
improves context/state dependent recall
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How does reporting from different perspectives improve accuracy of EWT?
prevents our schemas from affecting recall of events
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How does describing the event in several orders improve accuracy of EWT?
prevents people from reporting expectations
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How does reporting everything improve accuracy of EWT?
anything in recall may act as a cue for other important info
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What did Geiselman and Fisher study?
effectiveness of the CI
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Procedure of Geiselman and Fisher’s research
89 ppts, police training films of simulated violent crimes, interviewed using CI, standard police interview or interview using hypnosis, interviews were recorded and eyewitness reports assessed for correct and incorrect responses
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Results of Geiselman and Fisher’s research
the CI elicited the most accurate recall, then hypnosis, then the standard interview, no significant differences in number of errors made
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Conclusion of Geiselman and Fisher’s research
similarity of results between CI and hypnosis was due to techniques such as report everything, standard interview did worse because of repeated focus on encouraging recall without aids to memory recall
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Support for the CI
Fisher et al.
CI increased amount of info recalled by genuine crime witnesses
- is it accurate info?
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Criticism for the CI
Koehnken et al.
CI increased amount of info recalled but also elicited more inaccurate info than other methods
- witnesses may feel pressured to answer a certain way
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Support for the CI (selective)
Milne and Bull
police officers said they preferred using mental reinstatement and recalling events in different orders, they seemed to be most effective too
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Criticism of the CI
more time consuming than the standard interview and can require more training
may not be suitable for young children as they may find instructions confusing
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Other cards in this set

Card 2

Front

capacity: 7 +/- 2 items
duration: 18-30 seconds
encoding: acoustic

Back

What is the capacity, duration and encoding of short term memory?

Card 3

Front

capacity: potentially unlimited
duration: potentially lifetime
encoding: semantic

Back

Preview of the back of card 3

Card 4

Front

attention

Back

Preview of the back of card 4

Card 5

Front

displacement

Back

Preview of the back of card 5
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