Biopsychology

The nervous system is split in 2 parts

Central nervous system and autonomous nervous system.

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The central nervous system

Comprises the brain and spinal cord. It receives information from the senses and controls the body's responses.

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The autonomous nervous system

Governs the brain's involuntary activities and is self-regulating. It is divided into the sympathetic branch (fight-or-flight) and the parasympathetic branch (rest and digest).

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The peripheral nervous system

The part of the nervous system that is outside the brain and spinal cord.

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The somatic nervous system

The part of the peripheral nervous system responsible for carrying sensory and motor information to and from the central nervous system.

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The brain is responsible for

For coordinating sensation, intellectual and nervous activity.

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The spinal cord is

A bundle of nerve fibres enclosed within the spinal column and connects nearly all parts of the body with the brain.

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What is the brain involved in?

Mental processng and it is in overall 'control' of body functions.

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What is the spinal cord responsible for?

Passing messages from the brain to the rest of the body, and then transmitting messages back to the brain.

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What is the somatic nervous system responsible for?

Passing messages to the brain from sensory organs, and from the brain to the muscles. It controls voluntary or conscious actions.

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What does the autonomous nervous system do?

Controls the body's 'automatic' or involuntary actions such as breathing and heart rate. The autonomus functions of the body need to happen quickly rather than waiting for us to think about when to breathe or when our heart should beat.

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What is the sympathetic nervous system?

The body's alert system. It is involved in preparing the body to respond to threats.

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What the effects of the sympathetic nervous system?

Increased heart rate; reduced activity within the stomach; saliva production is inhibited; pupil dilation; relaxation of the bronchi; glucose is released.

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What is the parasympathetic nervous system?

The role of relaxing the body by counteracting the effects of SNS activation.

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What the effects of the parasympathetic nervous system?

Decreased heart rate; increased activity within in the stomach; saliva production increased to aid digestion; pupil contraction; constriction of the bronchi; glucose is stored.

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What do sensory neurons do?

Carry nerve impulses from sensory receptors to the spinal cord and the brain.

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What do relay neurons do?

Allow sensory and motor neurons to communicate with each other.

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What do motor neurons do?

Form synapses with muscles and control their contractions.

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What is synaptic transmission?

Refers to the process by which a nerve impulse passes across the synaptic cleft from one neuron to another.

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Synaptic transmission process 1

Neurons communicate with each other by passing chemical messages across a synapse; the gap between two neurons. An electrical impulse is triggered in a neuron.

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Synaptic transmission process 2

This causes small vesicles containing neurotransmitters to travel down the neuron to the terminal button. The vesicles fuse wih the other membrane of the terminal button and release neurotransmitters into the synaptic fluid of the synapse.

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Synaptic transmission process 3

These neurotransmitters are then absorbed by receptors on the adjacent neuron and converted into an electrical impulse, or they are reabsorbed by the releasing neuron in a process called reuptake.

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What are neurotransmitters?

Chemical substances that play an important part in the workings of the nervous system by transmitting nerve impulses across a synapse.

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What do inhibitory neurotransmitters do?

Calm down the brain and nervous system.

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What do excitatory neurotransmitters do?

Stimulate activity in areas of the brain.

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What is the endocrine system?

A network of glands throughout the body that manufacture and secrete chemical messengers known as hormones.

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What are endocrine glands?

Special groups of cells within the endocrine system, whose function is to produce and secrete hormones.

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What are hormones?

The body's chemical messengers. They travel through the bloodstream, influencing many different processes including mood, the stress response and bonding between mother and newborn baby.

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What are pituitary glands?

The 'master gland', whose primary function is to influence the release of hormones from other glands.

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Function of the endocrine system 1

The nervous system and endocrine system are linked by the hypothamalus; a small structure in the brain that regulates a lot of body drives, such as hunger, thirst and sex.

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Function of the endocrine system 2

The hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland by communicating to what hormones need to be released from which glands, and when.

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Function of the endocrine system 3

The pituitary gland is often referred to as the 'master gland' due to its role in stimulating other glands, such as the adrenal glands and testes/ovaries to produce their own hormones.

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Fight-or-flight response step 1

The amygdala identifies a threat. The hypothalamus communicates the threat to the sympathetic nervous system to trigger a fast response.

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Fight-or-flight response step 2

The message travels down the sympathetic nervous system to the adrenal medulla. The adrenal medulla releases the hormone adrenalin into the bloodstream.

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Fight-or-flight response step 3

Adrenaline in the bloodstream will trigger the fight-or-flight response, preparing the body to stand and fight or to run away from the threat. The fight-or-flight response involves various physical changes.

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Fight-or-flight response step 4

Once the adrenaline has started to wear off, the parasympathetic nervous system acts to bring the body back to its normal state.

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What is localisation of function?

Refers to the belief that specific areas of the brain are associated with specific cognitive processes.

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What is Broca's area?

An area in the frontal lobe of the brain, usually in the left hemisphere, related to speech production.

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What is the motor cortex?

A region of the brain responsible for the generation of voluntary motor movements.

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What is the somatosensory cortex?

A region of the brain that processes input from sensory receptors in the body that are sensitive to touch.

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What is Wernicke's area?

An area in the temporal lobe of the brain important in the comprehension of language.

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What are the visual centres?

Many areas of the brain are involved in processing visual information. The visual cortex in the occipital lobe detects patterns and processes information.

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What are the auditory centres?

Located in the temporal lobes. It is recognised and responded to in the auditory cortex.

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Evaluation of localisation of the brain: case studies

Case studies on brain damage support the idea of some localisation of function. For example, cases of aphasia (loss of language) are associated with damage to Broca's area.

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Evaluation of localisation of the brain: other cognitive functions

The equipotentiality theory suggest that, apart from motor and sensory funtions, other cognitive functions are spread across brain areas rather than localise in one site.

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Evaluation of localisation of the brain: brain damage

Lashley found that it was the total amount of brain damage rather than the destruction of any one site that affected memory.

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What is hemispheric lateralisation?

Refers to the fact that some mental processes in the brain are mainly specialised to either the left or right hemisphere.

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Hemispheric lateralisation

The brain consists of two hemispheres, which roughly mirror each other in terms of structure. Research shows that although they appear similar there are differences in terms of function in each hemisphere.

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The left hemisphere is responsible for

Processing language.

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The right hemisphere processes

Intuitive and spatial information.

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What is the corpus callosum?

A bundle of fibres that act as a pathway for inter-hemispheric communication.

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What is split-brain research?

Research that studies individuals who have been subjected to the surgical separation of the two hemispheres of the brain as a result of severing the corpus callosum.

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Surgical procedure

In order to treat people with severe epilepsy that spreads from one hemisphere to the other, the corpus callosum is occasionally surgically severed so that the hemispheres are no longer connected, thus controlling the seizures.

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Images

Images that are presented to the left visual field are processed in the right hemisphere, whereas images presented to the right visual field are processed in the left hemisphere.

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Supporting evidence Sperry (1968): aim

To investigate the function of the left and right hemispheres of the brain in split-brain patients.

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Supporting evidence Sperry (1968): procedure

A specially designed apparatus was used to control the visual input to split-brain patients so that objects presented to them were only available to one hemisphere.

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Supporting evidence Sperry (1968): result 1

Objects presented to the right visual field could be described using language. Object presented to the left could not because the right hemisphere has no language centres.

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Supporting evidence Sperry (1968): result 2

Point out an object from an array, the patient could point it out with their left hand. An object projected to the left visual field is only recognised again when presented to that same field; it was not recognised if presented to the other field.

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Supporting evidence Sperry (1968): conclusion

Research shows that the two hemispheres have different specialisations, confirming that language is a left hemisphere function.

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Evaluation of lateralisation & split-brain research: natural experiment

This is a natural experiment and it is the only ethical way to investigate the isolation of the hemispehres.

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Evaluation of lateralisation & split-brain research: useful

The research is very useful as it shows lateralisation of function exists.

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Evaluation of lateralisation & split-brain research: generalisable

Sperry's work was based on only a few patients who had experienced long-term problems with epilepsy. These factors might limit generalisability from this sample to the population.

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What is brain plasticity?

Refers to the brain's ability to modify its own structure and function as a result of experience.

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The extremes of brain plasticity

At one extreme, it could involve the wholescale re-mapping of the cortical structures in the brain in response to major brain trauma. At the other extreme, it happens at the level of individual neurons and synapses.

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Demonstrating plasticity: demonstrating plasticity

As we age, neurons can die in the process of apoptosis. It is a feature of development in childhood. As the brain adapts to its environment, it strengthens connective pathways being used and the weaker die through lack of use.

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Demonstrating plasticity: in response to damage

When an area of the brain is damaged, neighbouring neurons have reduced input. This stimulates other undamaged areas to compensate for the loss of function by creating new synapses to reroute the signals previously handled by the damaged area.

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Evaluation of brain plasticity: research support from Rosenzweig (1962)

Demonstrated that rats raised in an enriched, stimulating environment had increased cortical volume showing evidence of a greater number of synapses compared to rats raised in a wire cage without enrichment.

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Evaluation of brain plasticity: research support from Maguire (2000)

Found that the hippocampal areas of the brains of London taxi drivers were larger than those of a control group. This was thought to be due to extensive learning of the routes around London affecting the brain.

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Evaluation of brain plasticity: case studies

Evidence from case studies of functional recovery after trauma also adds validity to the claims for brain plasticity.

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What is functional recovery?

Refers to the recovery of abilities and mental processes that have been compromised as a result of brain injury or disease.

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Functional recovery affected by: age

The younger the person is when the damage occurs, the more likely it is that functional recovery will happen.

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Functional recovery affected by: years spent in education

People who have spent longer in education, recover better than those who did not go to college.

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Functional recovery affected by: perseverance

Recovery from brain injury takes a lot of time and effort.

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Functional recovery affected by: gender

Some evidence suggests that women recover better from brain injuries than men because their brain functions are not as lateralised in the first place.

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Evaluation of functional recovery: research support from Marquez (2008)

Found that patients older than 40 years regained less function after treatment than younger patients. This is probably due to younger brains being more plastic than older brains.

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Evaluation of functional recovery: research support from Tajiri (2013)

Under controlled conditions, Tajiri showed that rats injected with stem cells near the site of the injury displayed evidence of neural recovery, whereas those given a control solution did not.

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Evaluation of functional recovery: case studies

Case studies frequently show functional recovery, but have limited generalisability and, although high in mundane realism, lack the necessary control to scientifically validate the process.

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Ways of studying the brain: EEG

A method of recording changes in the electrical activity of the brain using electrodes attached to the scalp. It is used to detect anomalies or identify big changes in brainwave activity.

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Ways of studying the brain: ERP

A technique that takes raw EEG data and uses it to investigate cognitive processing of a specific event. It takes multiple readings and averages them in order to filter out all brain activity that is not related to the stimulus.

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Ways of studying the brain: fMRI

A technique for measuring brain activity. It works by detecting changes in blood oxygenation and flow that indicate increased neural activity.

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Ways of studying the brain: post-mortem examinations

A way of examining the brains of people who have shown particular psychological abnormalities prior to their death in an attempt to establish the possible neurobiological cause for this behaviour.

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Evaluation of fMRI: no radiation

Doesn't expose the brain to potentially harmful radiation.

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Evaluation of fMRI: not valid

It may only be measuring communication between parts of the brain, so it may not be a valid measure of function.

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Evaluation of EEG: records in real time

It provides a recording of the brain's activity in real time rather than a still image of the passive brain. This means that the researcher can accurately measure a particular task or activity with the brain activity associated with it.

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Evaluation of EEG: not useful

Electrical activity can be picked up by several neighbouring electrodes, therefore the EEG signal is not useful for pinpointing the exact source of an activity. As a result, it doesn't allow researchers to distinguish activities in different areas.

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Evaluation of ERP: continuous measure

In response to a particular stimulus, it makes it possible to determine how processing is affected by a specific experimental manipulation.

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Evaluation of ERP: requires a large number of trials

Because ERP's are so small and difficult to pick out from other electrical activity in the brain to gain meaningful data. This places limitations on the types of question that ERP readings can realistically answer.

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Evaluation of post-mortem examinations: anatomical analysis

Allows for a more detailed examination of anatomical and neurochemical aspects of the brain than would be possible with the sole use of non-invasive scanning techniques.

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Evaluation of post-mortem examinations: retrospective

The person is already dead. As a result, the researcher is unable to follow up on anything that arises from the post-mortem concerning a possible relationship between brain abnormalities and cognitive functioning.

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What is a circadian rhythm?

A pattern of behaviour that occurs or recurs approximately every 24 hours, and which is set and reset by environmental light levels.

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Circadian rhythm: sleep-wake cycle

Refers to alternating states of sleep and waking that are dependent on the 24-hour circadian cycle.

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Circadian rhythm: sleep-wake cycle characteristics

Light and darkness are external signals. Dips and rises at different times of the day. The sleep drive occurs in two dips; between 2-4 am and between 1-3 pm.

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Circadian rhythm: core body temperature

At it's lowest (36 degrees C) at about 4.30 am and at its highest (38 degrees C) at about 6 pm. Sleep when it drops and awake when it rises.

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Circadian rhythm: hormone production

The production and release of melatonin from the pineal gland in the brain follows a circadian rhythm, with peak levels occurring during the hours of darkness.

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Circadian rhythm: hormone production (in the dark)

When it is dark, more melatonin is produced, and when it is light again, the production of melatonin drops and the person awakes.

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Evaluation of circadian rhythms: research support from Siffre (1975)

Spent time in a deep cave and his bodily rhythms, including his sleep-wake cycle, were monitored. His natural circadian rhythm extended to around 25 hours, but was still regular despite a lack of cues, showing the regulating action of the SCN.

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Evaluation of circadian rhythms: individual differences

In the onset and duration of rhythms, suggesting that a purely biological explanation of the rhythm is too reductionist, as other factors play a part.

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What is an ultradian rhythm?

Cycles that last less than 24 hours, such as the cycle of sleep stages that occur throughout the night.

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Stage of sleep 1

4-5%; light sleep; muscle activity slows down; occasional muscle twitching.

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Stage of sleep 2

45-55%; breathing pattern and heart rate slows; slight decrease in body temperature.

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Stage of sleep 3

4-6%; deep sleep begins; brain begins to generate slow delta waves.

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Stage of sleep 4

12-15%; very deep sleep; rhythmic breathing; limited muscle activity; brain produces delta waves.

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Stage of sleep 5

20-25%; rapid eye movement; brainwaves speed up and dreaming occurs; muscles relax and heart rate increases; breathing is rapid and shallow.

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Ultradian rhythm: the Basic Rest Activity Cycle (BRAC)

During the day, rather than moving through sleep stages, we move progressively from a state of alertness into a state of physiological fatigue approximately every 90 minutes.

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Ultradian rhythm: the Basic Rest Activity Cycle (BRAC) research

Research suggests that the human mind can focus for a period of about 90 minutes, and towards the end of this period, the body begins to run out of resources.

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Evaluation of ultradian rhythms: EEGs

Strong evidence for the sleep cycle. EEGs monitor brainwaves as people sleep and show distinct stages in the sleep cycle that repeats several times a night.

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Evaluation of ultradian rhythms: research from Tucker (2007)

Showed large individual differences in the duration of stages.

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What are infradian rhythms?

Rhythms that have a duration of over 24 hours, and may be weekly, monthly or even annually.

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Infradian rhythms: weekly example

Although male testosterone levels are elevated at weekends and young couples report more sexual activity at weekends than on weekdays, the frequency of births at weekends is lower than on weekdays.

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Infradian rhythms: monthly example 1

The human menstrual cycle lasts about a month. There are variations in the length of this cycle, with some women experiencing a relatively short 23-day cycle wheres others have a cycle as long as 36 days. Average is 28 days.

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Infradian rhythms: monthly example 2

The cycle is regulated by hormones, which either promote ovulation or stimulate the uterus for fertilisation. After the ovulatory phase, progesterone levels increase in preparation for the possible implantation of an embryo.

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Infradian rhythms: annual example

Research suggests that a seasonal variation in mood in humans, especially in women, with some people becoming severely depressed during the winter months.

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Evaluation of infradian rhythms: individual differences

In the duration of rhythms, which may be due to biological causes or to external or exogenous factors that affect the onset of rhythms.

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Evaluation of infradian rhythms: influences mate choice (Penton-Voak, 1999)

Suggests that human mate choice varies across the menstrual cycle; different stages of the cycle. Women preferred feminised male faces for a long-term relationship. Ovulatory phase - wanted masculinised faces.

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What are endogenous pacemakers?

Mechanisms within the body that govern the internal, biological bodily rhythms.

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What is the suprachistmatic nucleus (SCN)?

A small group of brain cells - is also known as the body clock. It is the main endogenous pacemaker.

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SCN causes the pineal gland to...

Release a hormone called melatonin. This happens when the optic nerve reduces its activity as night falls. Melatonin reduces brain activity and makes us sleepy.

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Melatonin production stops when...

Melatonin production stops when activity on the optic nerve increases as daylight levels increase.

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In the absence of exogenous cues, the SCN...

Operates independently on a 25-hour or longer cycle. Our sleep-wake cycle is therefore longer than 24 hours when we are isolated from external time cues (zeitgebers).

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The SCN is entrained by...

Exogenous factors so that our sleep pattern follows a circadian or 24-hour rhythm.

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Our internal body clock is entrained by...

Exogenous factors which synchronise our internal timekeeper with the external world.

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The key exogenous factor that affects the sleep-wake cycle is...

Light levels.

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What are exogenous zeitgebers?

An environmental cue, such as light, that helps us to regulate the biological clock in an organism.

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Social cues affect the cycle; sleep-wake cycle.

The sleep-wake cycle of travellers synchronise more quickly if they engage in the activities of the new time zone, suggesting that these quicken entrainment and reset the body clock.

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Evaluation of pacemakers & zeitgebers: research support from Morgan (1995)

Removed the SCN from hamsters, obliterating the sleep-wake cycle. When SCN transplantation was done, they resumed a normal pattern, providing strong evidence that the SCN is the body clock.

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Evaluation of pacemakers & zeitgebers: development for strategies for shift work & jet lag

Research has led to the development of strategies to reduce the impact of shift work and jet lag. The manipulation of light levels, for example, allows shift workers to sleep when they would normally be awake.

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Evaluation of pacemakers & zeitgebers: lacks ecological validity

The studies used artificial light, which could affect the way the body clock works.

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Biopsychology

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