Biology T2 YR1

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  • Created by: Rae892
  • Created on: 20-07-16 15:51
Name two functions of the brain
To use sensory input to guide movement and regulate internal organs
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Which statement is correct about the forebrain?
Uses current sensory input and experience to make decisions
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Which is correct about the midbrain?
Uses sensory input to direct movement
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Which is correct about the hindbrain?
It maintains current state, temperature and pace
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What was the name of the first cell to evolve?
Single cell prokaryotes
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What was the correct environment for life to begin?
Positively charged water in deep sea vents
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When did the first cell evolve?
3.5 billion years ago
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What did the first cell evolve in to?
Eukaryotic cells
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When did the first cell evolve into the second?
2000 million years ago
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What are split brain patients?
Patients who have had surgery which separates two hemispheres in the brain
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What is fractionation?
Damage to the brain which can produce selective deficits
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What is transparency? (relating to brain damage)
Damage to part of a psychological process which 'knocks out' this process
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What is universality? (relating to brain damage)
Architecture of mental processes is fundamentally the same across individuals
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Define the logic of disassociation
Neuropsychological data can be used to test theories about the architecture of psychological processes even without knowing the exact location of the damage
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What is double disassociation?
When there is a working system in patient A and not in patient B and visa versa then you can assume they are processed in different systems
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Explain brain imaging overlap
It allows you to create maximal overlap from multiple people allowing you to see if deficits of behaviour are caused by damage.
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What must we always remember with brain imaging overlap?
Size and area of the damage will always be different between patients
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Name a benefit of group-level analysis
Reduces the effects of individualism
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Why would we use a single case study?
They can be very specific and detailed
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What does TMS stand for?
Transcranial magnetic stimulation
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Name the three stages of TMS
A large current is discharged into a coil of wires on the subjects head --> current generates rapidly changing magnetic field which passes into the brain --> Creates electric current through neuronal membranes
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Name four advantages of TMS
1. Good spacial resolution 2. Excellent temporal resolution 3. Allows different conditions to be compared within same subjects
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Name two limitations of TMS
1. Can't reach deeper levels of the brain 2. Need to control for auditory and somatosensory effects
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What type of molecule does a cell membrane not allow through?
An electrically charged molecule
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Name three molecules a cell membrane allows through
Water, amino acids and oxygen
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What regulate the ionic concentrations inside a trans-membrane protein?
Pumps
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What do pumps do?
They regulate ionic concentration in the cell and use most of the brains energy
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What do channels do?
They allow particular ions to cross the membrane
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Name two key features of channels
1. They have a 'selectivity filter' 2. Most channels are made from four proteins
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What channels do cell membranes have?
Potassium leak channels
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What are electrostatic forces?
Excess negative ions on the inside of the membrane that attract the positive ions outside
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Name three ways things can travel through a cell
1. Through a pump 2. Through a channel 3. Through an electrostatic force
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What does a receptor do?
They transmit information across the membrane when the molecule binding on one side changes the shape on the other side
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What channel opens when a specific molecule binds to it?
A ligand-gated channel
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Outline the six steps as to how a calcium channels works
Refer to word document
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What are the three elements of a neuron?
The sensory end, the decision centre and the action end.
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Which element is closest to our muscles?
The decision centre
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How do neurons collect information?
From signals (a small electrical pulse) from their dendrites, that travel to their integration zone
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What signals have a higher post-synaptic potential?
Larger dendrites - Higher Other neuron - Lower Closer - Higher
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When do voltage-gated channels open?
When the membrane depolarises- the more depolarised the membrane the greater number of channels open
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What does the shape of a voltage gated channel depend on?
The membrane potential
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How do channels work within a neuron?
See word document
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What is the relative refractory period?
The hyper-polarisation of the membrane makes reaching threshold difficult as they need more current. VG Na channels are closed.
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What is the absolute refractory period?
Caused by temporary inactivation of VG Na channels
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What is the cerebral cortex?
The grey matter on the outer part of the brain
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What is the corpus callosum?
It connects the two hemispheres of the brain and is made of white matter tracts
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What are the four lobes the cerebral hemisphere can be split in to?
Frontal, parietal, occipital and temporal
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What kind of matter are axons?
White
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Explain the theory of localisation of function
Basic psychological regulation and motor functions are localised but cognitive functions aren't. Basic processes are in small spaces in the brain with little plasticity.
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What is action potential?
It is the pulse along the neuron which constitutes communication
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How is action potential generated?
It is generated by the opening and closing of voltage-gated channels that change the amount of Na+ and K+ entering and leaving the cell
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Why does action potential take time to travel?
The membrane has electrical resistance and capacitance, production of the potential takes time and recovery after the spike uses a lot of energy.
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How do vertebrates compensate for this problem?
A myelin sheath surrounds the axon, acting as an insulator to reduce capacitance.
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How does a pre-synaptic terminal release neurotransmitters?
1. Vesicles containing the NT wait in the active zone 2. Action potential causes brief depolarisation 3. Arrival of the action potential opens the voltage gated channels 4. Vesicles fuse and release the neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft
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What happens once the neurotransmitter has been released?
It diffuses across to the post-synaptic cell and binds to the receptor opening ligand-gated channels
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What is an ionotropic receptor?
Is a receptor which is the same protein as the channel it corresponds with
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What is a metabotropic receptor?
It's a receptor which is a different protein from the channel it corresponds with
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Where does metabotropic and ionotropic receptors bind to the ion channel?
Metabotropic - Outside the cell Ionotopric - Inside the cell
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What does a synapse do?
Neurons are sent and received at synapses throughout the body
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What is an EPSP?
It stands for excitatory post synaptic potential - It's the PSP that makes the neuron more likely to fire an action potential
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What is an IPSP?
Stands for Inhibitory post synaptic potential - It makes the neuron less likely to fire an action potential
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What part do IPSPs and EPSPs play in the stretch reflex?
There is an EPSP followed by and IPSP in order to create the stretch reflex
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What is muscle memory?
Synapses obtain memory by collecting and analysing sensory information and changing the post-synaptic potential.
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What is the difference between a pre and post synaptic change?
Pre-synaptic changes are changes in the amount of neurotransmitters released. Post synaptic changes are changes in the number of ion channels that can open.
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Whta three things can happen to a neurotransmitter once neurotransmission has occurred?
1. The NT gets lost in the inter-celluar space 2 Enzymatic degradation: enzymes break down the transmitter 3. Re-uptake: The transmitter is reabsorbed and recycled .
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Name the three toxins that interfere with the neurotransmission at the synapse.
1. Tetrodo toxin (TTX) 2. Tetanospasmin toxin 3. Botulinum Toxin
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What does tetrodo toxin do?
It blocks the sodium ion channels and can cause paralysis
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What does tetanospasmin toxin do?
It shuts down the calcium channels, reducing the amount of released inhibitory neurotransmitter leading to very strong muscle contractions
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What does botulinum toxin do?
Interferes with the release of acetylcholine at nicotinic synapses by preventing the release of neurotransmitters. Is used as the brand-name botox for cosmetic treatments.
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How does an amphetamine produce its effects?
It is very similar to Dopamine, it can enter the dopamine releasing neurons and facilitates the release of dopamine. Most dopamine synapses are in the pleasure and reward area of the brain- creates euphoria
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How does heroin produce its effects?
It's an agonist of endorphins, which are natural chemicals that relieve pain and produce relaxation. Heroin increases this process.
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How does cannabis produce its effects?
It's an agonist of anandamide, it binds to the canabinoid receptors which are involved in emotion, pain, appetite and memory.
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How does cocaine produce its effects?
Cocaine blocks the transporter of noradrenaline and dopamine thus stopping the reuptake and boosting their effects as dopamine stays in the synaptic cleft longer so has a higher chance to bind
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How does tobacco produce its effects?
It contains nicotine which is an agonist of Acetylcholine, it produces a short term generalised excitatory effect
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How does alcohol produce its effects?
It is an agonist of the neurotransmitter GABA and increases the effectiveness of GABA resulting in relaxation as GABA is inhibitory
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What are four causal factors of addiction?
1. Effects of drug related cues 2. Effects of drug tolerance and withdrawal 3. The drug's influence on processing of rewards 4. Drug taking as self-medication
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Outline the effects of drug-related cues
Associative learning theories of addiction: Instrumental conditioning, the drug is the reinforcer strengthening assoc. with DR cues and D use . Removing the drug cue can help break addiction. Re-exposure can elicit the response.
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Explain the conditioned compensatory response
This is where conditioned stimulus, associated to the unconditioned stimulus can eventually produce a conditioned response identical to the unconditional response when re-enforced. This is a type of tolerance our body creates, re-enforcing drugs
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Explain how tolerance can create addiction simply
Our body naturally produces tolerance to drugs as a homeostatic response to reduced the harmful effects of substances. Therefore, increases drug use, potential overdose, less harmful effects
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Explain how withdrawal can effect addiction
Withdrawal symptoms are caused by prior adjustments in the nervous system, making them extreme and difficult to tolerate
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What is the anhedonia hypothesis?
Dopaminergic synapses give substances their reward effect, dopamine antagonists reduce this effect. This was hypothesised from rats given pimozide, a dopamine antagonist, with positive reinforcement behaving no differently than rats without reward.
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What is the incentive salience hypothesis?
Dopaminergic circuits are not so much responsible for the pleasure obtained from a drug, but for the motivation to obtain it.
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How does co-morbidity effect the probability of a drug dependent diagnosis?
Probability of a drug dependency increases with severity of mental illness but you can't establish causation
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Discuss whether or not drugs cause mental illness
Studies found links with impulsiveness means less likely to be cured. Majority of studies correlational. Complex relationship.
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How do we convert physical stimuli into electrical stimuli that can be processed in the CNS?
The sensory receptor neuron converts the stimulus into an electrical signal, receptor neurons receive the information through the cilia, outputs sensory information at the synapse inducing ion channels to open.
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How do electrical signals get to the brain?
Information travels from the sense organ through sensory pathways to the cortex/
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How does the brain make sense of all the action potentials arriving?
Neurons are only interested in particular types of information due to its parent, environment and education.
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What is a nerve?
A bundle of axons
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Name the four types of taste
Sour, bitter, salty, sweet/unami
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How does the tongue 'taste'?
We have taste buds on our papillae, which contain 50-150 taste receptor cells. Our saliva carries tastants through the taste pore to the taste bud.
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'Information from taste receptors get sent to different parts of the brain for different types of processing' True or False?
True
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Why are taste receptors located throughout the body?
To monitor nutritional state and provide long-term learning through reward signals
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What job does Mucus do in the nose?
It captures odorants and diffuses them to receptors on the cilia in the mucus, it regenerates every 10 minutes, protecting cilia and removing old odorants
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Name three key facts about olfactory receptor neurons
1. Replaced approx. every 28 days 2. Produce action potentials and send info along axons 3. Use G-Protein linked receptors
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How do olfactory receptors work?
They bind to the odarant molecule
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What are benefits of a G-Protein system?
Huge amplification (1 molecule can open many channels), receptor can be a different part of the cell to the signal
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How many families of olfactory receptors are there?
Four, and are in different parts of your nose
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What did Brown and Sherrington (1947) find?
Severed the spinal cords of cats, and put them on conveyor belts. Cats could still move against the belt. Knowledge of movement must be in the lower systems.
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What are the four main types of touch receptors?
Merkel's cell, Meissner's corpuscle, Ruffini's ending and Pacinian corpuscle.
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What is the difference beween tonic and phasic responses?
Tonic responses continue for the duration of the stimulus (slow adaptation), whereas phasic responses are only at the onset (fast adaptation).
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What is the receptive field?
The area over which a stimulus will affect the given neuron's firing rate, with neural activity decreasing as you move from the centre.
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In terms of response and field, what do the four main types of touch receptor specialise in?
Merkel's cell: texture. Ruffini ending: sustained contact. Meissner's corpuscle: vibration. Pacinian corpuscle: initial contact.
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What is proprioception?
The ability to sense one's own body, in terms of relative position and strength of effort.
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What are the two main families of stretch receptors in muscle?
Rapidly adapting, and sustained response.
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What is nociception?
The ability to sense harmful stimuli, triggering applicable responses and usually manifesting as pain.
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What are the main classes of nociceptor fibre?
Aδ (A-delta) and C. Aδ is fast and myelinated, whereas C is slow and unmyelinated.
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What is the flexion reflex?
The reflex through spinal cord synapses which causes muscle withdrawal in response to Aδ signals, mainly mechanical damage and heat.
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What is the function of the brainstem?
Provides pathways between nerve connections from the main part of the brain to the rest of the body, and also ten of the twelve pairs of cranial nerves.
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What is the function of the cerebellum?
A key structure in motor control, contributing to coordination, precision and timing and possessing by far the most concentrated number of neurons in the CNS.
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What is the function of the basal ganglia?
Plays a key role in the initiation of movement and balance.
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What are the two pathways of the basal ganglia?
Direct and indirect. Direct leads to excitation (movement initiation) and indirect leads to inhibition (also of movement).
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What causes the symptoms of Parkinson's?
Loss of dopamine neurons in the basal ganglia, resulting in hypokinesia (decreased bodily movement) and bradykinesia (slowness of movement).
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What were the main pre-Mendel and post-Mendel ideas regarding heredity?
Pre-Mendel: continuity, blending inheritance from mixing gene pool. Post: intact transmission (genes) and discontinuity (mutation).
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How are behavioural traits inherited?
Genes contribute to the expression of a trait, or phene, which can be dominant or recessive.
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What is an example of intra-population behavioural differences?
Fruit flies which 'rove' about to find food are more likely to survive than those which are less active.
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What are examples of complex behavioural expressions caused by particular genes?
Mutating the fosB gene in mice disrupts maternal behaviour by affecting the hypothalamus and thus smell. Honeybees have a gene which dictates how liable they are to help clean their hive.
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Where are genes located?
Chromosomes of cell nuclei.
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What is the relation between genes and protein?
Proteins are large complex molecules made up of amino acids, which the genes (made up of DNA) provide instructions to make (the DNA "codes for" a protein(s)).
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What is zygosity?
If both alleles are the same (homozygous) then that trait will be expressed, but if they are heterozygous, the dominant will suppress the recessive. This leads to percentage chances of trait inheritance, inc. diseases.
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What is an example of polygenetic inheritance?
Skin colour is determined by 8 different gametes, thus an offspring will have 64 possible combinations from parents, which combine for 7 possible skin colours (the parents' colours appear blended).
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How do mutations persist?
If a mutation is neutral and doesn’t affect an animal’s long term viability, it will persist in the population. Mutations can be pinpointed to a point in time and are rarely beneficial - an exception is sickle cell anaemia in hot climates as it means
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What is the different between wild-type and mutant alleles?
Wild-type alleles are those which occur with less than 1% frequency, whilst mutant alleles are those which occur with greater than 1%.
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How strong is the influence of genetic behavioural traits between close genetic relatives?
Twins who have been split up (e.g brought up in different environments) show weak correlations with certain behaviours, which is different to twins who have been reared in the same environment who show strong correlations of behaviour.
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What are hormones?
Bioregulators of the endocrine system secreted by specialised cells into the blood.
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As a method of instruction/communication, how do they contrast to the nervous system?
Chemically-based, they are controlled usually from the hypothalamus, are secreted from a certain gland and must travel to their destination. This means they are slower-acting and can also influence other areas and systems.
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What are protein hormones?
Short amino acid strings, with their structure understood by target areas to initiate action (such as homoeostasis) eg. insulin, glucagon, LH.
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What are amine hormones?
Similar to protein hormones, but simpler and smaller single amino acids, eg. adrenaline. Both of these types can be stored in advance and have rapid effects.
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What are steroid hormones?
Cholesterol-based hormones which are soluble in lipids, thus cannot be stored and must be synthesised as needed, and diffuse passively into cells. They have slow-onset but long-terms effects, eg. oestrogen, androgens.
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What controls hormone production?
Positive and negative feedback loops to maintain homeostasis
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What is autocrine feedback?
A cell within the body will recognise circulating levels of hormones and be able to respond appropriately.
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What is target cell feedback?
If one hormone is downregulated, this might trigger the production of another hormone. This depends on what hormones are being produced and what stimuli we’re dealing with. E.g. insulin/glucagon system.
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What is an endocrine cascade?
Releasing hormone produced triggers the production of another hormone, which then travels and triggers another hormone to be produced and so on. Eg. thermostasis: thyrotropin-releasing -> thyroid-stimulating -> thyroxine.
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What are the two parts of the pituitary gland and what do they do differently?
Anterior (adenohypophysis), which synthesises and secretes, and posterior (neurohypophysis) which only stores and secretes.
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What are the short-term effects of pituitary hormones regarding development?
Crying and suckling triggers the mother's production of oxytocin, which induces milk production. Oxytocin stops being produced when the baby stops feeding.
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What are the long-term effects of pituitary hormones regarding development?
When you hit puberty you get maximum release of GH. This process continues over time so that animal can grow to the required length. GH mainly secreted during sleep, research in rats shows that if you affect sleep through starvation of sleep deprivat
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What is vision?
Detecting and interpreting patterns of electromagnetic radiation; differences of intensity and wavelength.
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How is an image formed in the eye?
Incoming light passes through the cornea, vitreous humour, lens and aqueous humour, being refracted onto the receptor cells of the retina.
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What is accommodation?
The lens can adjust shape in order to refract light by a specific amount, ie. Focus on an object.
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What systems are used to help stabilise the images?
Inner-ear semi-circular canals detect motion, whilst the cerebellum computes the stabilisation and muscles move the eyes.
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What is the fovea?
The area in the centre of the eye which has the most receptors and thus the highest image acuity, in contrast to peripheral vision.
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What occurs in visual transduction?
An incoming photon causes the membrane to become hyperpolarised, due to opsin and retinal receptors closing sodium channels.
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What are the differences between rods and cones?
Cones are used for daytime (photopic) vision, with high detail and low sensitivity, whereas rods are used for nighttime (scotopic) vision, with vice versa.
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What are the 3 types of cone cells?
Shortwave, medium-wave, and long-wave, allowing us to differentiate between a range of light wavelengths, ie. see in colour.
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What are the 4 types of cell the light passes through before reaching receptor cells?
Horizontal cells compute deviations from mean luminance, bipolar cells distinguish light from dark, amacrine cells split signals into approx 20 types, retinal ganglion cells send action potentials to brain.
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What is the thalamic relay?
Signals from both eyes cross at the optic chiasm. 90% of the output then goes to the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus; 10% to superior colliculus of the tectum.
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What are the major processing streams in the thalamus?
P cells and M cells. P cells have a small dendritic field and thus respond better to stationary objects, whereas M cells have a large field and respond well to fast-moving objects.
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What is the visual cortex?
The part of the cerebral cortex responsible for processing visual information, divided into 6 regions, V1 through V6. V1 (the primary 'striate' cortex) is where information first arrives.
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What occurs in the primary visual cortex (V1)?
V1 is further split into layers 1 through 6. Information from an individual eye first arrives at Layer 4. The neurones in V1 feature retinotopic mappings, a transformation of the visual image from the retina to V1.
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What occurs in V2?
Information from V1 is received. V2 learns from previous experience, drawing inferences about foreground and background and predicting shapes and patterns. The image differences caused by the space between eyes is used to establish depth.
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What is the relevance of possessing an opposable thumb?
The ability for primates to manipulate objects finely with their hands makes detailed vision important; brains have evolved new cortical areas to further process the information extracted in VI and V2.
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What are the two main visual processing streams?
Dorsal stream (spatial recognition of distance and relative position; useful for grasping and reaching) and ventral stream (detailed analysis and colour vision, such as minute feeding and social cues). Colin Cloud's ventral stream must be in top 0.1%
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What are the three main components of stress?
Alarm, resistance and exhaustion, with increasing persistence. Sympathomedullary pathways are activated and stress hormones maintain high levels as stress persists.
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What are the two main endocrine protection systems?
Sympatho-adrenergic system(SAS) and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA). The former is a physiological fight-or-flight response, whereas the latter is passive and/or anticipatory. Most stress, however, is a combination of both factors.
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What occurs in a physiological alarm reaction?
Link to a stimulated SAS. Involves an activation of brainstem nuclei, vagal nerve and adrenal medulla. Noradrenaline and adrenaline are released into the blood (directs blood to muscles, dilates pupils etc.)
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What occurs in the passive coping mechanism?
Redirection of oxygen and nutrients to brain, gluconeogenesis, lipolysis, redirection of progesterone.
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What is the overall result in stress reaction?
Elevated corticosterone levels. Neuroendocrine, autonomic and behaviour adaptations. If these adaptations deal with the stressor and lead to homeostasis, there is a rapid termination of the stress response.
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What is the Yerkes Dodson Law?
Arousal improves performance up to an optimal point. Past this point, performance begins to decrease.
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What is Lazarus' Transactional Theory?
Whether we have a stress response or not depends on how we perceive the stressor (how much of a threat it is to us) and the resources we have (whether we think we can deal with it or not). When there is a perceived imbalance between these two, a stre
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What is primary and secondary appraisal?
Primary appraisal is the analysis of how a situation will affect us (ie. should it be stressful) and secondary appraisal is the analysis of what can be done about the stressful situation.
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What are 3 types of coping mechanism?
Problem-focused attempts to solve the situation at hand. Emotion-focused regulates emotional and social response through rationalism. Avoidance disengages or withdraws from the problem.
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