Attachment || Research

Schaffer (1993)

Defined an attachment as "a close emotional relationship between two persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximity"

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Maccoby (1980)

Identified four key behaviours of attachment: seeking proximity to primary caregiver, distress on separation, pleasure when reunited & general orientation of behaviour towards the primary caregiver

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Schaffer and Emerson (1964)

Conducted the study in Glasgow and identified different stages of attachment

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Carpenter (1957)

Two week old babies can recognise their mothers face and voice

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Bushnell, Sai, and Mullin (1989)

Two day old babies show preference for image of their mother over stranger

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Condon and Sander (1974)

Analysed frame-by-frame video recordings of infants’ movements to find they co-ordinated their actions in sequences with adults’ speech to form a kind of turn-taking conversation, supporting the idea of interactional synchrony

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Isabella et al. (1989)

Supported the notion of interactional synchrony reinforcing attachment bonds, by finding that infants with secure attachments demonstrated more evidence of such behaviour during their first year of life

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Bowlby

Believed that children had one prime attachment (monotropy) and that although children had attachments to other people, these were of minor importance compared to their main attachment bond

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Rutter (1995)

Proposed a model of multiple attachments that saw all attachments as of equal importance, with these attachments combining together to help form a child’s internal working model

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Lamb (1987)

An infant strengthens attachments with father through playing and entertainment rather than through feeding etc. which is what the mother provides. Believed in supportive co-parenting as fathers play a key role as play mates

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Hardy (1999)

Fathers are less able to detect distress, so they're not able to see as many problems. Therefore, if a child is in a good mood, they go to their dad, whereas if they're in a bad mood they go to mum

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Lucassen

Stated that the more sensitivity and security the father shows, the stronger the attachment will be. Also believed if the father had a stronger attachment with his own parents, it would influence the way he treats his own child

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Baer and Martinez (2006)

Children that are maltreated are more likely to be insecurely attached

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Wartner et al (1994)

Observed that securely attached children showed more competence in their play. Children are able to confidently explore their environment, whilst using their primary caregiver as a base

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Belsky and Fearon (2002)

Securely attached children had greater social confidence, school readiness, expressive language and receptive language

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Wartner et al (1994)

Found that 82% of children at the age of 18 months and 6 years remained in the same category of attachment

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Harlow (1959)

Found that when the blanket was removed from the cage, the baby monkeys became distressed like they are when separated from their mothers - suggests attachment is not based solely on food

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Ainsworth & Bell (1970)

Create the Strange Situation and identified three different attachment types in children

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Main and Solomon (1986)

Introduced a fourth attachment type. Found that a small number of infants displayed disorganised attachment, in which the infants showed no consistent pattern of behaviour, and fitted none of the three main attachment types identified by Ainsworth

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Ainsworth et al (1978)

Introduced the maternal sensitivity hypothesis

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Kagan (1984)

Introduced the temperament hypothesis

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Thomas and Chess (1986)

Identified three basic infant personality types: easy, difficult, and slow to warm up - suggests innate temperament differences

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Bokhorst et all (2003)

Looked at twins and found a greater similarity in terms of temperament for identical twins than non-identical twins

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Dollard and Miller (1950)

Provided a detailed explanation of attachment based on operant conditioning

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Darwin

Attachment behaviour has endured because it promotes survival in several ways: safety (seeking proximity), emotional relationships (distress on separation) & secure base for exploration

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Konrad Lorenz (1935)

Interested in how young animals attach to their mothers, and how this gave them an increased chance of survival. Studied imprinting through the use of greylag geese

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John Bowlby

Introduced the ASCMI theory as an evolutionary explanation for attachment

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Van Izjendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988)

Looked at cross-cultural variation in attachement by conducted a meta-analysis. Key finding: there was one and a half times greater variation within cultures than between them

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Cole (1998)

Suggested that we really need detailed knowledge of the cultures under study, if we are to udnerstand the nature of everyday interactions

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Dogon Study

Looked at infant-mother attachment types

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Robertson and Bowlby (1952)

Introduced the protest-despair-detachment model

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Little John

Case study which offers support for the PDD model

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Robertson and Robertson (1971)

Found that short-term separation does not have to produce negative effects.

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Bowlby (1953)

Proposed the maternal deprivation hypothesis

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Spitz (1945)

Visited several very poor orphanages in South America. These children received little warmth or attention from staff and had become apathetic. Many also suffered from anaclitic depression

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Spitz and Wolf (1946)

Studied 100 apparently normal children who became seriously depressed after staying in hospital. Generally children recovered well only if the separation lasted less than 3 months

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Goldfarb (1947)

Compared 2 groups of infants who before fostering had spent the first few months or 3 years in a poor and inadequately staffed orphanage. Those who spent 3 years in care performed poorly on intelligence tests, less social mature, and more aggresive

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Rogers and Pryor (1998)

Found that children experiencing two or more divorces have the lowest adjustment rates and the most behavioural problems

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Hodges and Tizard (1989)

Looked at the effect of institutionalisation on children

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Freud and Dann (1951)

Studied children who had become orphans due to the war and found that they still were able to develop well despite not having a primary caregiver

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Koluchova (1976)

Twin boys experienced extreme privation, however the effects were reversed and they ended up having 'normal' lives

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Genie

A case study looking at a girl who experienced extreme privation, and the effects could not be reversed

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Bowlby (1969)

Believed that attachment had evolved in order to promote the survival of the species

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Belsky (1999)

Attachment behaviour would not have evolved if its function was only to protect the individual child and thereby promote survival, because survival is not the goal of natural selection

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Jacobson and Willie (1986) & Liberman (1977)

All found that children classified as secure go on to be secure in their friendships, and insecure attachments will have insecure friendships

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Youngblade & Belsky

Research supports the continuity hypothesis as they found 3-5 year olds who had secure attachments were able to get along better with other children and were more likely to form close relationships

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Westermarck

Research can both support and challenge Bowlby's hypothesis as he found that children who form close friendships in the first 6 years of life do not generally go on to form adult sexual relationships with each other

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Hazan & Shaver (1987)

Developed the love quiz to test whether or not early attachment types have an effect on adult relationships

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Maine et al

Suggests that your internal working model can change in your adulthood, so an insecurely attached child may not be an insecure adult

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Fraley (1998)

Carried out a meta-analysis of studies in this area and found significant positive correlations for the relationship between early attachment style and quality of later adulthood relationships

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Simpson et al (2007)

Studied 78 participants at four key point in their life. Found that PPs who were securely attached infants: were rated as having higher levels of social competence, closer to their friends and were more expressive and more emotionally attached

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