Approaches

Who was the first person to call themselves a psychologist?

Wundt

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What did Wundt believe?

That all aspects of nature including the human mind could be studied scientifically

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What did his approach give way to?

For acceptance of psychology as a distinct science in its own right & experimental psychology as the preferred method of studying human behaviour

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What did he study in his laboratory in Germany?

Only those aspects of behaviour that could be strictly controlled under experimental conditions. E.g. the study of reaction time and various aspects of sensation and perception

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What did Wundt eventually come to realise?

That higher mental process such as learning, language & emotions could not be studied in this strict controlled manner

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What is introspection?

The process by which a person gains knowledge about their own mental & emotional states & enables us to observe our inner world

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What did Wundt claim about introspection?

That with sufficient training, mental processes such as memory & perception could be over served systematically as they occur using introspection

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What do empiricists believe?

That knowledge comes from observation & experience alone and when empirical methods were first applied to the study of human beings psychology began to emerge as a distinct entity

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What two major assumptions was this scientific approach based on?

All behaviour is seen as being caused and if behaviour is determined than it should be possible to predict how human beings would behave in different conditions

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What does this scientific method refer to?

The use of investigative methods that are objective, systematic & replicable

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What is the behaviourist approach?

Behaviour is determined by the consequences of our behaviour which determines the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring. Behaviourists such as Skinner emphasise the importance of external forces in environment in shaping out behaviour

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Is the behaviourist approach nature or nurture?

Nurture as it is a consequence of our interactions with the environment & consequences of our behaviour within that environment

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What are all animals including humans born with in regards to classical conditioning?

A number of natural reflexes such as reflex action of salvation when food is placed in the mouth

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Explain these reflexes

Reflexes are made up on a stimulus & its naturally associated response. When other stimuli are consistently associated with this stimulus & predict its arrival eventually too they trigger the same response

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Who is normally credited with classical conditioning?

Pavlov

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What did Pavlov investigate?

The salivary reflex in dogs and noticed that animals not only salivated when food was placed in their mouths but reacted to stimuli that coincided with presentation of food

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What did his investigation lead him to explore?

The conditions under which this type of learning was most likely to occur

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Outline the features of classical conditioning

Natural stimulus in any reflex is referred as unconditioned stimulus & natural response is the unconditioned response

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What happens during acquisition phase?

A neutral stimulus which doesn't elicit the UCR is presented shortly before the UCS. After many pairings of NS+UCD this changed and NS is now able to produce same response in the absence of UCS. NS becomes known as conditioned stimulus

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Why might conditioning not take place?

If the NS cannot be used to predict the UCS - Pavlov discovered that, unlike the UCR, the CR does not become permanently established as a response. After few presentations of CS in absence of UCS, it loses ability to produce CR

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What is the idea behind Skinner's theory of operant conditioning?

The organisms spontaneously produce different behaviours which produce consequences for that organism. Some of which may be positive/ negative

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When may positive reinforcement occur?

When behaviour produces a consequence that is satisfying or pleasant for the organism; e.g. food to a hungry animal or praise given to a child after they do something well

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What may negative reinforcement occur?

As they remove something aversive & restore the organism to its pre-averse state e.g. act of hitting the off button on alarm clock allowing person to escape from unpleasant ringing & restores restful pre-alarm state

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What does punishment refer to?

The circumstance whereby a behaviour is followed by a consequence that is undesirable for that organism. Reinforcement increase the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring whereas punishment decreases it

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What is social learning theory?

Behaviour is determined by observations of others and so behaviour is largely a product of our experience but learning process provides tools to conduct a particular behaviour, its up to individual how & when to apply these tools

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Is the social learning theory approach nature or nurture?

Primarily nurture in that people learn as a result of observing others but generally assumed the capacity to learn from an observation of others has some adaptive signs so likely to be innate

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Outline Bandura et al's study

Carried out an experiment involving children who observed aggressive or non-aggressive adult models and were tested for imitative learning in the absence of the model

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What is the procedure of Bandura et al's study?

1/2 children were exposed to adult models interacting aggressively with life-sized Bobo doll & 1/2 exposed to non-aggressive models. Following exposure to model, children were frustrated by being shown attractive toys which they weren't to play with

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What did Bandura find with children who observed the aggressive model?

They produced a good deal of physically and verbally aggressive behaviour resembling that of the model. Around a 1/3 repeated the models verbal responses

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What did Bandura find with children who observed the non-aggressive model?

They exhibited virtually no aggression toward the Bobo doll

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What is modelling in regards to social learning theory?

In order for SLT to take place, someone must carry out behaviour learned. Individuals that perform this role are referred to as models they can be live or symbolic

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What is imitation in regards to social learning theory?

Amount of learning takes place through direct reinforcement most of what a child learns is acquired through imitation of attitudes and behaviour that are modelled by parents and significant others.

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What are the key determinants of whether a behaviour is imitated?

The characteristics of the model, the observers perceived ability to perform that behaviour & the observed consequences of behaviour

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What is identification in regards to social learning theory?

Refers to extent to which an individual relates to a model & feels that they are similar to that person. To identify with a model, observers must feel they are similar enough to them that they would be likely to experience same outcomes of that situa

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What is vicarious reinforcement in regards to social learning theory?

Bandura et al notes that children who observed a model rewarded for aggressive behaviour were much more likely to imitate that behaviour than children who observed a model punished for same behaviour

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What is the cognitive approach?

Behaviour is determined by our own thought processes, which determine our behaviour. Therefore individual has some degree of control over their behaviour

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Is the cognitive approach nature or nurture?

As thought processes may be a product of innate factors of our experiences and we all share the same means of cognitive processing but problems may arise when people develop irrational thoughts/beliefs

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What is a schema?

Is a cognitive framework that helps to organise and interpret information in the brain e.g. schemas for specific events are based on expectations of how to behave in different situations/roles

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What do schemas help us do?

Fill in the gaps in absence of full information about a person, event or thing however, consequence would be we may develop stereotypes that are difficult to disconfirm even when faced with new/conflicting information

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Outline theoretic models in relation to study of internal mental processes

In cognitive psychology, models such as multi-store model of memory/ working memory model are simplified representations based on current research evidence. Models are often pictorial in nature, represented by boxes/arrows that indicate cause &effect

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Outline computer models in relation to study of internal mental processes

The development of computers and computer programming led to a focus on the way in which sensory information is coded as it passes through the system

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What have advances in studying the brain in later 20th century meant?

That neuroscientists are now able to study the living brain, giving them detailed information about brain structures involved in different kinds of mental processing

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How has non-invasive techniques helped psychologists?

Use of non-invasive neuroimaging techniques such as positron emission tomography and functional magnetic resonance imaging helps psychologists to understand how brain supports different cognitive activities/emotions by showing active parts of brain

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What is the biological approach?

Is determined by physiological factors and/or inherited factors both of which are outside of our control

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Is the biological approach nature or nurture?

Origin of behaviour is primarily nature as biological systems such as CNS and endocrine system are product of innate factors however, experience may modify these systems

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What is heredity?

Is the passing of characteristics from one generation to the next through the genes and is the reason why offspring 'take after' their parents in terms of physiological charcteristics

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What do genes carry?

The instructions for a particular characteristic but how this develops depends on the interaction of the gene with other genes and the environment

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What is genotype?

The genetic code that is written in the DNA of an individuals cells

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What is phenotype?

The physical appearance that results from this inherited information

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What is the nervous system?

Comprised of several connected systems such as the brain, spinal cord & peripheral nervous system which comprise the somatic & autonomic nervous system

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What does the nervous system do?

Carries messages from one part of the body to another using individual nerve cells known as neurons which transmit nerve impulses in form of electrical signals

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What is the latest part of the brain?

The cerebrum, making up around 85% of total mass of brain. Outer surface of cerebrum is called cerebral cortex which is responsible for many of higher order functions such as thought

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What happens when a nerve impulse reaches the end of one neuron?

A chemical called a neurotransmitter is released. It travels from one neuron to the next across a junction called the synapse. Neurotransmitters that trigger nerve impulses in receiving neuron and stimulate brain into action are called excitatory

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What are hormones?

Chemicals that are produced by endocrine glands such as pituitary gland which together make up endocrine system. In response to signal from brain, hormones are secreted directly into bloodstream where travel to target cells & exert their influence

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What is the psychodynamic approach?

Behaviour is determined by unconscious factors which are largely unknown to us and so beyond our conscious mind

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Is the psychodynamic approach nature or nurture?

Psychodynamic approach focuses on nature side of human behaviour in unconscious forces & conflicts that we must all deal with but how we cope with them is to do with upbringing

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What did Freud believe?

In the existence of a part of the mind that was inaccessible to conscious thought and referred to tis as unconscious mind

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Explain the iceberg metaphor

Tip of the iceberg represents the conscious mind being visible but larger part represents the unconscious being hidden under water

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Wha did Freud believe about most of our everyday actions/behaviours?

They are not controlled consciously but are the product of unconscious mind which reveals itself in slips of the tongue. The unconscious, he believed extended its influence into everyday part of waking lives

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What did Freud believe about mind?

It actively prevents traumatic memories from unconscious from reaching conscious awareness

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What are the three structures of personality?

The id, The ego & The superego

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What is the id?

operates solely in unconscious and contains libido - biological energy created by reproductive instincts. Operates according to pleasure principles

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What is the ego?

Mediates between impulsive demands of id and reality of external world e.g. may delay gratifying the id until there is a more appropriate opportunity to satisfy its demands

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What is the superego?

Is divided into conscience and ego-ideal. Conscience is internalisation of societal rules & determines which behaviours are permissible and causes feelings of guilt when rules are broken

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When may defence mechanisms be triggered?

When an individual is faced with a situation that they are unable to deal with rationally

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What do defence mechanism tend to operate?

Unconsciously and work by distorting reality so anxiety is reduce. By using them the individual stops themselves becoming aware of any unpleasant thoughts/feelings associated with traumatic situation

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What is an example of defence mechanism?

Denial which is the refusal to accept reality so as to avoid having to deal with any painful feelings that might be associated with that event. Person acts as if the traumatic event has not happened

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What did Freud believe in regard to development of personality?

Develops through a sequence of five stages called psychosexual stages which emphasise most important driving force in development is the need to express sexual energy

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What are the five psychosexual stages?

Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latent, Genital

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Outline the oral stage

0-2 years - the mouth is the focal point of sensation and is the way in which the child expresses early sexual energy

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Outline the anal stage

2-3 years - beginnings of ego development, as child becomes aware of demands of reality and need to conform to demands of others

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Outline phallic stage

3-6 years - sexual energy is now focused on genitals. Major conflict of this stage is Oedipus complex in which male child unconsciously wishes to possess their mother and get rid of father

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Outline laten stage

6-12 years - child develops their mastery of the world around them and during this stage conflicts/issues of previous stages are repressed with consequence that children are unable to remember much of early years

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Outline genital stage

12+ - direction towards sexual intercourse and beginning of adult life

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What is the humanistic approach?

Behaviour is determined by our own free will. Humanistic psychologists such as Maslow & Rogers believed people exercise choice in their behaviour rather than being at mercy of outside forces

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Is the humanistic approach nature or nurture?

Makes various assumptions about human nature e.g. drive to self-actualisation however, also acknowledges the problems in achieving that arise from experiences/upbringing

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What to humanistic theories emphasise?

That people have full conscious control over their own destiny but this is not to say we can do anything at all as we are subject to many other forces including biological/societal influences

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Outline Maslow's theory of hierarchy of needs

Most basic physiological needs are represented at bottom & most advanced needs such as self-actualisation at the top. Each level must be fulfilled before a person can move up to a higher need

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What did Maslow find in regards to people who attained the highest level of needs?

They shared certain characteristics, tended to be creative, accepting of other people and had accurate perception of world around them

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What does the self refer to?

How we perceive ourselves as a person

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What are the two basic needs that Rogers claims people have?

Positive regard from other people and a feeling of self-worth which develop in childhood and are formed as a result of child's interactions with parents

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What did Rogers believe?

That how we think about ourselves and feelings of self-worth are important in deterring our psychological health and closer our self-concept and ideal self are to each other the greater our feelings of self-worth/psychological health

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What is congruence?

When there is similarity between a person's ideal self and how they perceive themselves to be in real life, a state of congruence exists

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How do we achieve greater congruence and self-worth?

As closer self-image and ideal self are to each other

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What is rare?

For a complete state of congruence to exist, with most people experiencing some degree of incongruence as most people prefer to see themselves in ways that are consistent with their self-image

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What happens when people experience conditional positive regard?

They develop conditions of worth which they perceive significant others put upon them and which they believe have to be in place if they are to be accepted by others and see themselves positively

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