psychology: the approaches

1. Internal Mental Process

• The mental skills we need to allow us to process information about the world around us is called cognitive skills. 
• We have to understand these internal processes of our mind.
• The processes help us to make sense of the world around us and to operate effectively within it. 
• We use our memory to remember certain things around us. For example, a doughnut, it's round and made of dough. 
• Internal mental processes can go wrong, can result in abnormal behaviour. Depression, pobias and eating disorders can all be explained by thought processes that become irrational or disorted. 
  • examples of abnormal thought process are cognitive deficiencies and cognitive distortions. (Kendall, 1993). 

2. The Computer Analogy

• according to the cognitive approach, the human mind is like a computer. we take in information (through our senses), process it and genreate an output in the form of behaviour. 

3. Schemas 

• schemas help us to understand how we make sense of the world. we have schemas of people, places and activities.

What is eyewitness testimony?

Methodology

• Two experiemnts conducted in a labatory 
• Independent groups design 
  • condition 1 - one group does 
  • condition 2 - one group does
• In experiment 1 there was 45 student participants.
• In experiment 2 there was 150 student paticipants.

Procedures 

Experiment 1 

• the paticipants were all shown seven film clips of different traffic accidents. the length of the films ranged from 5-30 seconds.
• after each clip the participants were given a questionaire in which they were told to give an account about the accident. among the questions were in important question that was 'about how fast were the cars going when they ___ each other?' the word in the blank changed for each group.                              the questions were:
  • 'About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?'
  • 'About how fast were the cars going when they smashed each other?'
  • 'About how fast were the cars going when they collided each other?'
  • 'About how fast were the cars going when they bumped into each other?'
  • 'About how fast we the cars going when they contacted each other?'

Procedures

Experiment 2

• the participants were shown a film of a car crash on repeat. the actual accident lasted less than four seconds. they were asked after a list of questions, including the critical question about speed. 
• the paricicpants were divided into three groups, each had 50 participants. 
  • group 1 was asked: 'How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?' 
  • group 2 was asked: 'How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?'
  • group 3 this was the control group and its members were not exposed to any question.
    
• one week later, the participants were asked to return to the lab and were further questioned about the filmed accident. 
  • all of the participants were asked: 'Did you see any broken glass?' there was no broken glass in the film. 

NOT RELIABLE

Post-event information

• Loftus and Zanni (1975) also demonstrated the effects of such post-event information.
• They got information back stating that subtle changes in the wording used in questions can influence the recollection of the participant. This suggests that whether a witness is questioned by police, lawyers, friends, etc., their recollection may be distorted. 

Crimes are emotive experiences

• Eyewitness may be unreliable as crimes are unexpected and emotionally traumatising. 
• Repression is an ego-defense mechanism. Nowadays, psychologists might call this 'motivated forgetting', but in either form perhaps eyewitnesses are not reliable becuase the memory of the crime is too traumatising.  

NOT RELIABLE

Child witnesses are not reliable

• Children as eyewitnesses are often regarded as unreliable because they're prone to fantasy and they're memory can be influenced by others. 
• Researchers have been interested in finding out if children are accurate eyewitnesses.

Memory is reconstructive

• Schemas are used to help us process information quickly. however, schemas may distort our memory of a event.
• when we later have to recall the information, these expectations may have become incorporated into our memory, leading to an inaccurate recall. 

Schemas

• Dion et al (1972) demonstrated that people believe that physically attractive people also have attractive personal qualities. This schema is called the halo effect. 
• If we view someone that's attractive with positive quailites then we're more likely to want to form a relationship with them. 

Internal Mental Process

• Essential with self-perception and the perception of others.
• Your perceptions, based on first impressions of them, will influence whether you want to be in their company again, possibly for a date. 
• If we have positive memories or past relationships, we may be driven to forming new relationships. 
• If, however, our memories are negative and we remember being hurt, we may be reluctant to form relationships, even with those we like. 

Explaining the formation of romation relationships.

• Self-schemas are partically important in the matching hypothesis - an explaination for relationship formation. 
  
• We are attracted to those we feel match us in terms of physical attraction. 
• If, however, our perception of our attractiveness is low, we will not go for those we percieve to be attractive in fear of rejection. 

Strengths of the cognitive approach

Mediational processes

• Focus on the important 'processes' that occur between stimulus and response.
• Cognitive psychologists look at ways of improving memory using retrieval cues. Such reseach can show us why we need to make shopping lists before going to the local supermarket.

Important contributions

• CBT has been used successfully to treat disorders such as depression.
• Cognitive psychology has advanced memory research, and one such application is in the field of eyewitness testimony.

Scientific approach

• memory research has in the main been conducted under strict laboratory conditions; involved using brain scanning techniques. 
• cognitive neuroscience is a field devoted to pinpointing the exact biological mechnasisms involved in our cognitive processes.  

Weaknesses of the cognitive approach

Nature vs nurture

• The cognitive approach does consider the influence of both internal and external factors of behaviour. 
• Schemas fails to consider important elements of nature and nurture. 
• Research has consistently looked at the influence of genes, through the use of twin studies. 
• Therorists have failed to consider the role of culture and gender on the development of thinking in children. 

Determinist approach

• We aquire stereotypes about people and situations, such as 'women who are blonde are stupid' and 'people who wear glasses are smart'. 
  
  • These are cultural stereotypes, and such stereotypes (or schemas) may determine the way we interpret certain situations. 

How cognitive assumptions apply to CBT

• Our thoughts influence our emotions and the behavious that follow. 
  • for example depression and anxiety, stem from faulty or irrational thinking, and if a person is to be cured of these disorders, their thinking patterns need to change. 
• CBT is a form of therapy that relates to this main assumption, and works by helping change these thinking patterns as well as behaviour. 
• The assumption that internal processes, such as perception, impact on our behaviour underlines the priciples of CBT as it is of the role of the therapist to help the client change their perceptions of the world around them. 
  • The therapist starts by developing these thoughts 
    • "Why do they __"
• In CBT, the client is helping to change these negative schemas, resulting ina change in how they respond to the world around them. 

Main components of CBT

Dysfunctional thought diary

• Clients are asked to keep a record of events leading up to any unpleasant emotions experienced. 
• They record all the negative thoughts they have that may be associated with these events and rate how much they believe in these thoughts. 
  • This is effective for people with phobias. 

Cognitive restructing 

• When the client has worked out their thought pattern, with the therapist, together they will work on identifying and changing the thinking patterns. 
• During CBT the therapist will challenge the clients automatic thoughts by saying "Where's the evidence that __ was talking about you?"

Pleasant activity scheduling

• The therapist will ask the client to partake in an activity that the client enjoys. This is an example of an behaviourist activation technique - helping clients change their behaviour. 

Evaluation: effectiveness

Reasearch support

• CBT is highly effective when treating depression and anxiety-related problems.
• Jarrett et al (1999) found that CBT was as effective as some antidepressant drugs when treating 108 patients with severe depression over a 10-week trial. 

Therapist competetence

• A factor influencing the success of CBT appears to be the therapist's competence. Not all therapists are trained in CBT and some aren't even good at CBT therapy which can be a disadventage for clients. 

Individual differences

• CBT appears to be less suitable for people who have high levels of irrational beliefs that are both rigid and resistent to change. 

Empowerment

• CBT recognises the need for free will that people have. It has also become the most widely used therapy by clinical psychologists working in the NHS. 
  • encourages the client to have strategies about having to deal with it. 

Assumption 1: Acknowledgement of Free Will

• Humans are in charge of their own emotions and have the free will to change how they direct their emotions. 
• Selgiman believes that happiness isn't due to good genes or luck, it's a result of recognising our own strengths and working on developing our weaknesses. 
• Researchers have found that students who had the strongest ties to friends and family were happier and there was also a negative correlation between level of depression and happiness. 

Assumption 2: Authenticity of Goodness and Excellence

• Value people that are happy.
• Feelings of happiness and goodness are as natural as feelings of anxiety and stress. 
• We need to nurture traits such as kindness, generosity and humor in order to transform our lives for the better.

Assumption 3: Focus on 'the Good Life'

• The pleasent life - happiness comes from pursuing positive emotions in relation to the past, present and future.
• The good life - happiness comes from pursuing activities that positively absorb and engage us. 
• The meaningful life - happiness comes from a deep sense of fulfilment by living for a purpose much greater than oneself.  

Positive psychology is focused on the conditions in which happiness thrives, therefore the topic of relationships is important. 

Authenticity of Goodness and Excellence

• Feelings of love, kindness, generosity and forgiveness and other positive qualities are authentic, and this can explain why relationships are formed. 
• According to the positive approach, we are socially programmed to work hair to find and build relationships with others.

The Good Life

• We strive towards 'a good life', a place of happiness, good relationships and work. 
• 'Positive connection to others' is our ability to love, trust, enjoy happiness and forgive; these are all essentials to form a healthy relationship formation. 
• Happiness in the good life comes from pursing activites. Social and romantic relationships and family relationshis help us achieve it.  

PERMA

a model of well-being created by Martin Seligman. He believes that PERMA makes up the five most important building blocks of well-being and happiness.

• Positive emotions - feeling good
• Engagement - being completley absorbed in activities
• Relationships - being authentically connected to others
• Meaning - purposeful existence
• Achievement - a sense of accomplishment and success

5 to 1 Positivity Ratio - Gottman

Conflict is inevitable in every relationship

• The 'magic ratio' is 5 to 1. it means that for every negative interation during conflict, a stable and happy marriage has five (or more) positive interations.
• Unhappy couples tend to engage in fewer positive interations to compensate for their escalating negativity. 

The One Negative Interaction

• A predictor of divorce, as well as feelings of loneliness and isolations. 
• Negative interactions during conflict include being emotionally dismissive or critical, or becoming defensive. Body language such as eye-rolling can be a powerful negative interaction. Negativity holds a great deal of emotional power, which is why is takes five positive interactions to overcome any one negative interaction. 

Be Interested 

• making eye-contact and timely "uh-huhs" that show how closely you're listening. 

Express Affection

• Difficult to maintain the relationship. 
• Within conflict, displays of affection (physical or verbal) reduces stress. 
• Display of affection is bound to reduce tension and bring you closer together.

Demonstrate They Matter

• Don't take them for granted.
• Bringing up something to your partner, even when you don't agree, demonstrates that you're putting interest into the relationship and you care about them. 
• If your partner is having a bad day at work, small things like picking up dinner on the way home can boost a relationship. 

Intentional Appreciation

• Compliments. 
• By focusing on the positives in your marriage such as the good moments from your past and your partner's admiriable traits, you put positive energy into your relationship. 

Find Opportunities for Agreement

• An idea that you need to find a common ground. 

Empathize and Apologize

• The apology has to be sincere. 
• This will provide a positive and empathetic interaction that reinforces your bond. 

Accept your Partner's Perspective

• "Yes, I can understand why you feel like this."
• Even if you don't agree, letting them know that their perspective makes sense will show them that you respect them.
• Validation doesn't mean agreement, but it does signal respect. 

Make Jokes

• shows there's a deeper connection. 

Self-Other Overlap

• If someone does or doesn't protect a partner from the negative implications of comparisons depends on the degree to which they view themselves and their partner as 'one unit': a nickname, on a christmas card together, etc.
  • This has been called "self-other overlap" by psychologists. 
    • If you see them as your otherhalf. If your partner is critisised, you feel critisised.

Way of Expressing Signiture Strengths

• Personality tests are a good way to measure personality characteristics. 
• There are six virtues in the Values in Action Classification system:                                                              1. Wisdom - acquisition of and use of knowledge.                                                                                          2. Courage - the will to accomplish goals in the face of internal or external opposition.                3. Humanity - Interpersonal strength.                                                                                                  4. Justice - Civic strengths.                                                                                                                5. Temperance - strengths that protect us against exesses.                                                        6. Transcendence - Strengths that connect us to the larger universe.

Strengths

A Shift in Focus for Psychology

• It moves the focus of psychology beyond explaining and treating disorder and illness to celebrating the human character, and how our authentic strengths can be developed to ensure that we experience life to the greatest. 

Applications

• Positive psychology has been used for the US Army, following extended campaigns in Afghanistan and Iraq in recent years. 
  • it's used to improve different aspects of resilience, and to try to reduce the incidence of stress symptoms and suicide. 
  • the programme is used to focus on building mental toughness by identifying and developing signiture strengths as well as preventing pathology, so that soldiers can return home without serious mental health issues. 

Free Will Approach

• The positive approach believes in the ability to have personal freedom to grow and develop. 

Weakness

Not a New Idea

• While many believe that positive psychology is a new and fresh approach, such claims of novelty are false. 
• The positive potential of human beings was first celebrated by Abraham Maslow and the humanistic psychology movement in the late 1950s and early 1960s.

Can Happiness be Measured?

• Studies that meaure happiness are based upon self-report and may not be accurate. 
• Each individual will have a different idea about what happiness means to them. 

Ignoring Individual Differences

• Positive psychology has been critisied for ignoring individual and cultural differences, and proposing a 'one size fits all'  philosophy and its conclusions about the power of positive.
• collectivism as opposed to individualism is the dominant outlook in 70% of the world's population, and cultural context should not be overlooked. 

How is it Relevant in Today's Society? (STRENGTHS)

Education

• Promotes skills and strengths that are valued by most.
• Produces measurable improvements in students' well-being and behaviour. 
• Facilitate students' engagement in learning and achieving. 

Work

• Most people experience 'flow' situations more than three times a day as much at work than during leisure.
  • working environments offer more opportunities for positive experiences.

A Shift in Focus for Psychology 

• Celebrates human characteristcs and how human authentic strengths can be developed to ensure a great experience.

How is it Relevant in Today's Society (STRENGTHS)

Free Will Approach

• We have personal freedom to grow and develop our natural signiture strengths and virtues.

Socially Sensitive Research

• might make us think more negatively or positively about a certain group of people. 

Psychological Harm

• Very little risk of harm to participanta because behaviour is not being manipulated.

Applications

• In 2007, UK department for children, schools and families set 10 new targets to improve children's well-being by 2020. 

How is it not relevant in today's society? (WEAKNESSES)

Work

• In societies where money is important, work may be important for money rather than enjoyment/happiness. 

Education

• Spence and Shortt (2007) argue that the research that does exist tends to be based on a small-scale or short-term intervention. 

Psychological Harm

• Some people may not be comfortable with being asked about their happiness. 
  • They may feel more depressed when they realise how unhappy they really are.  

How is it not relevant in today's society? (WEAKNESSES)

Nature 

• Behaviour is caused by genes.
  • If a relative has been to jail and is violent, there is a chance that you may be violent as well due to genetics. 

Hierarchy of Needs

It's hard to achieve all seven.

• 1. self-actualism - being the best you can be
• 2. aesthetic needs - wanting something better
• 3. intellectual needs
• 4. esteem needs
• 5. social needs
• 6. saftey needs
• 7. psychological needs

Findings - The myths to happiness

Is Happiness Related to Age?

• A survey of almost 170,000 people of all ages in 16 different countries found no difference. People of all ages were equally happy. 
  • Everyone has 'flashpoints' of unhappiness.
    • it can happen to anyone. 

Is Happiness Related to Gender?

• A survey of people in 16 different countries found that 80% of both men and women said that they were "fairly satisfied" with their life. 
  • Women are more able to talk about depression.
  • Men feel uncomfortable talking about emotions to others.
• Women are twice as vunerable as men to depression.
  • Men had estigmas that they would drink alcohol and not tell their feelings .

Findings - The myths of happiness

Is Happiness Related to Culture?

• African-Americans report nearly twice as much happiness as European-Americans. 
• Individualist cultures report greater SWB (subjective well-being) than in collectivist cultures 
  • In individualist cultures people are more concerned with their individual needs.
  • Collectivist cultures focus on the needs of the group. 

Is Happiness Related to Money?

• The less money you have, the more you want. 

Happy People

The Traits of Happy People

• High self-esteem - individuals typically tend to agree with statements such as "I'm a lot of fun"
  • Delusions related to arrogance. 
• Sense of personal control - people who feel impowerd rather than helpless do better at school, cope                                                      better with stress and are typically happier.
• Optimism - depends on how you view life if you look for the good in a situation or not. 
  • However, optimism can be bad if you don't expect something good to happen and you wish to not get youre hopes up, you won't be disappointed if it doesn't happen. 
• Extraversion - people who are more outgoing are happier when with other people and also                                                alone. 
  • The idea of being with other people can make them happy.