Psychology - approaches

A way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning.

Classical conditioning - learning my association
( Pavlov's research )

Operant conditioning - a form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences. Possible consequences of behaviour include positive, negative reinformant or punishment.
( Skinner's research )

Evaluation

Real life applications- treatment for phobias and token economy
Scientific credibility- the experiment is replicable
Animal studies - don't generalise to humans

A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors.

Vicarious reinforcement - indirect learning through observing the behaviour of others, imitation will only occur when the Begay is rewarded (reinforced) rather than punished

Mediational processes - four mental processes or mediational processes which cause the learning of the behaviour ( identified by Bandura )
1. Attention (notice behaviour)
2. Retention (remember behaviour)
3. Motor reproduction (ability to perform behaviour)
4. Motivation (will to perform behaviour)

Identification - identifying role models to model behaviour from.

Evaluation
Banduras study - carried out in a lab and could cause demand characteristics
Underestimated biological factors - boys more aggressive in doll experiment could be due to testosterone and hormones.

The term cognitive has come to mean mental processes so this approach is forced on how our mental processes affect behaviour.

The role of schema - a mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing. They are developed from experience.
Babies are born with an innate simple motor schemas such as grasping.
Schemas used to process information quickly, adults have more detailed schemas.

Cognitive neuroscience - advanced in imaging (FMRI and PET) allows doctors to systematically observe and describe neurological basis for mental processes.
Tulving studied the episodic and semantic memory and showed they were different types of LTM is located on opposite sides of the prefrontal cortex.

Evaluation
Machine reductionism - ignores human emotion e.g. Human memory may be affected by emotional factors such as anxiety
Lab experiments - lack ecological validity
Application to real life - wide range of practical and theoretical contexts. Contribute to science.

Emphasis the importance of physical processes in the body such as genetic inheritance and neural function.

Genetic basis of behaviour - the study that mental processes are inherited just like physical characteristics are. Twin studies are used to determine the likelyhood that certain traits have a genetic basis by comparing the concordance rates between twins.

Twin studies - monozygotic twins are found to have higher concordance rates than dizygotic twins

Genotype - the particular set of genes that a person possesses
Phenotype - characteristics of an individual determined by both genes and the environment

Evaluation
Real life application - has lead to development of psychoactive drugs that treats serious mental illnesses, such as depression
Deterministic - the sense that it sees human behaviour as governed by internal biological causes

The different forces (dynamics) most of which are unconscious that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour and experience.

The role of the unconscious- Freud said that most of the mind is made of the unconscious and contains repressed memories. Under the conscious mind is the preconscious which we become aware of during dreams.

Structure of the personality - the Id operates the pleasure principle, present at birth, demands instant gratification. The ego works on the reality principle, develops at 2, manages the conflict between the Id and superego by employing defensive mechanisms. The superego formed at the end of phalic stage, based on the morality principle.

Psychosexual stages -
Oral (0-1 years) - focus of pleasure is the mouth, fixation causes smoking
Anal (1-3 years) - focus of pleasure is the anus, fixation causes perfectionism
Phalic (3-5 years) - focus of pleasure is the genitals, fixation causes narcissistic
Latency - earlier conflicts are repressed
Genital - sexual desire is conscious, fixation causes difficulty forming relationships

Evaluation
Power - has had huge influences on psychology and western contemporary thought
Case study - little Hans
Untestable - doesn't meet the criteria of falsification

To understand behaviour that emphasises the importance of subjective experience and each persons capacity for self determination

Free will - the notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external forces.

Self-actualisation - each person has an innate tendency to achieve their full potential, self actualisation represent the upmost level of Maslows hierarchy of needs. First level is physiological needs, safety and security, love and belongingness, self-esteem and then self actualisation.

The self, congruence and conditions of worth - concept of self has to have congruence with their Ideal self. If there is a state of incongruence then self actualisation will not be achieved.

Evaluation
Not reductionist - advocate holism the idea that subjective experience can only be understood when considering the whole person
Limited application- counciling techniques
Positive- considers the person in psychology