Personality

Gordon Allport (1937)- Personality is the dynamic organisation within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his (her) unique adjustments to the environment.

It can be measured using

Ojective/structured/self report personality tests. E.h. MMPI, CPI

-Scores for each trait usually normally distributed

-Scores are standardised- score is only meaningful when compared to other people

-The tests are not strong predictors of behaviour but generally show a low to moderate relationship

-It is easy to fake answers- social desirability 

Projective tests E.g. word association test, incomplete sentence test, Rorshach inkblot

-Poor validiy- can be insightful for individual clinicians

-based on psychodynamic approach- Freud

Lexical approach to discover traits

Allport and Odbert (1936) extracted 18,000 personality words for a dictionary

Cattell (1957) reduced the list to 171 and asked people to rate others they knew on each

He analysed the data and found 16 primary personality dimensions- 16PF questionnaire

Factor analysis- the Big 5 (Norman, Goldberg, Costa & McCrae)

• Openness vs Close-minded
• Conscientiousness vs Tolerant of Disorder
• Extraversion vs introversion
• Agreeablness vs Antagonistic
• Neuroticism vs emotional stability

Goldberg's IPIP big 5 test- lacks validating evidence

Hans Eysenck- Argued for a 2D model of personality: two 'super traits'

• Extraversion vs introversion
• Neuroticism vs emotional stability
• psychoticism

Currently, Big 5 is more popular than Eysenck's model

Traits as predispositions

Twin studies indicated a strong genetic influence in the Big 5 (40%-60%)

Twin studies of Eysenck's E and N also indicate a strong genetic influence

No major between family differences in twins reared apart

E and N and physical arousal- biology and traits:

-Introverts react more strongly to external stimuli because:

• Have a lower threshold than extraverts
• Introverts have lower pain threshold, lower tolerance of loud music when studying, taken fewer opportunities to socialise

-Neuroticism: CNS is more sensitive

Behaviour is determined by characteristics of the situation rather than by the characteristics of the person.

Env cues and consequences cause behaviour

We do not all behave the same way in the same context/situation

Some situations have clear and well defined rules of behaviour (constrained setting)- so allow for very little difference in behaviour

Other situations are more ambiguous, novel or stressfull (less constrained) and so are more likely to show 'true colours' and greater differences in behaviour.

Some people are more consistent than others

A combo of learning and cognition

Bandura: Social Learning Theory

Observational learning: 'models' who are observed being rewarded or punised for behaviour

Behaviour attempted by observer

Subject to the principles of learning

-An interaction between nature and nurture

People take their traits and learned behaviours and understanding into each situation

Your consciousness is just the tip of the psyche. The unconscious is the main force in personality.

The unconscious part of the mind contains memories of events, thoughts and feelings which are 'repressed'.

Evidence comes for hysteria patients- paralysis or aneastesia of body part not caused by physiological causes but by psychological ones. Some patients were cured under hypnosis

• Internal conflict- Id- pleasure principle
• Ego- Reality principle
• Superego-moral principle

Repression and leakage cause defense mechanisms to occur, and anxiety

Unfalsifiable

Healthy humans seek to grow and reach their potential as humans.

We do more than just react to, or avoid anxiety.

Development of a self concept- develops in childhoor as a result of unconditional postive regard

• The I- who takes actions, makes decisions (or not).
• The Me- sense of self as an object that is seen, thought about, liked or disliked etc

Can lead to self-actualisation- reaching one's full potential and being at ease with self and others.

Happiness: American and Japanese students (individualism vs collectivism)

Americans- feelings proud, superior, masterul

Japanese- feeling friendly, connected to otehrs, filled with respect

culture clearly influences how personality is expressed

Many theory are Western, but good evidence of the universality of the Big 5 and of Eysenck's E and N.