Osteology - Anatomical Terminology

• Anatomical - An expression that related to anatomy
  • Anatomy - The branch of morphology tha deas with the structure of animals alternative names for the body of a human being 
• Cranial Skeleton Anatomy - Refers to the skull
• Axial Skeleton -  Refers to the bones of the trunk; including vertebrae, sacrum, ribs and sternum
• Appendicular Skeleton -  Refers to the bones of the limbs, including the shoulder and pelvic girdles

• Human anatomis and anthropoloigists use the vocubulary to describe the human bone specifically
• Anatomical nomenclature* is both concise and precise
• Allows for unambiguous communication among all researchers who study skeletal material 
• It has evolved from a classical foundation - many names coming from Latin or Greek terms, a working knowledge of these roots can help in the learning of the names of bones
• Creates a standard for viewing the anatomy of hominids: 
  • Standard anatomical position
    • Standing
    • Looking forward
    • Feet together & pointing forward
    • Palms facing forward & thumbs pointing away from the body
    • Left & right refer to the sides of the observered not the observer

*nomenclature = a set of names or terms used in a particular science or art 

• Sagittal (midsagittal, median or midline):
  • Divides the body down the middle into symetrical halves - right and left
• Parasagittal:
  • A planar slice that parallels the sagittal plane
• Coronal:
  • Divides the body into anterior and posterior halves
• Transverse:
  • Slices through the body at any height perpendicular to the sagittal and coronal planes

• In osteology it is useful to refer to directions of motion or the relative locations of various skeletal parts 
  • All GENERAL directional terms refer to the human body in SAP
  • Also applicable to all mammals
• A few terms may cause confusion when hominid and nonhominid bones are bein compared because humans are orthograde (upright triunk) bipred and most other animals are pronograde (trunk horizontal) quadrupeds

• Superior: towards the head end of the hominid body
• Inferiror: the body parts away from the head of the hoiminid
• Anterior: towards the front of the hominid body 
• Posterior: towards the back of the hominid body
• Medial: towards the midline 
• Lateral: away from the midline 
• Proximal: nearest the axial skeleton
• Distal: the furtherst away from the axial skeleton
• External: outside the hominid body
• Internal: inside the hominid body
• Endocrinal: the inner surface of the cranial vault
• Ectocrinal: the outer surface of the cranial vault 
• Superficial: close to the surface 
• Deep: far from the surface
• Subcontaneous: just below the skin 

• Mesial: toward the midline point of the dental arch where the central incisors contact each other
• Distal: opposite of the mesial
• Lingual: toward the tongue
• Labial: toward the lips  (usually reserved for incisors and canines)
• Buccal: toward the cheeks (reserved usually for premolars and molars)
• Interproximal: in contact with adjacent teeth in the same jaw
• Occlusal: facing the opposing dental arch
• Incisal: the biting, or occlusal edge of the incisors
• Mesiodistal: axis running from mesial to distal
• Buccolingual & Labiolingual: axis running from labial or buccal to lingual

• Palmar: palm side of the hand
• Plantar: sole of the foot
• Dorsal: top of the foot or back of the hand 

• Movement of the body occurs when muscles act directly or via tendons on bones
• The less mobile attachment point that anchors a muscle is called the origin of the muscle
• The insertion is the site of muscle attachment wuth relatively more movement than the origin

• Flexion: a bending movement that decreases the angle between body parts
• Extension: a straightening movement that increases the angel between body parts 
• Abduction: movement of a body part (usually a limb) away from the sagittal plane
• Adduction: movement of a body part (usually a limb) toward the sagittal plane
• Circumduction: a combination of abduction and adduction, extension and flexion - that results in an appendage moving in a cone-shaped path
• Rotation: motion that occurs as one body part turns on an axis
• Opposition: motion in which body parts are brought together

• Pronation: rotary motion of the forearm that turns the palm from anteriorly facing to posteriorly facing
• Supination: rotary motion of the forearm that returns the palm to a position in which the thumb is lateral
• Dorsiflexion: flexion of the entire foot away from the ground 
• Plantarflexion: flexing of the entire foot inferiorly (towards the ground at the ankle)
• Eversion: turning the sole of the foot outward so that it faces away from the midline of the body
• Inversion: turning the sole of the foot inward so that is faces toward the midline of the body
  • Also known as the supination of the foot

• Whereas the directions and motions have precise meanings, the bony features of the body are more ambiguous and cross-cutting
• The conventional labels for various bones and bone parts are always adopted to ensure stability of nemenclature and effectiveness of communication
• Specific terms for nearly all bones and their parts are already established
  • For example, the question 'when is a tubercle big enough to be called a tuberosity (or tochanter)' is rarely faced by osteologists
    • The 'greater trochanter' of a femur, for example, identifies a particular, unique structure for all human osteologists

• Process: a bony prominence
• Eminence: a bony projection - usually not as prominent as a process
• Spine: a longer, thinner, sharper process than an eminence
• Tuberosity: a large, usually rugose eminence of variable shape (often site of tendon/ligament attachment)
• Tubercle: a small, usually rugose eminence (often site of tendon/ligament attachment) 
• Trochanters: two large, prominent, blunt, rugose processes found on the femur
• Malleolus: a rounded proterbance adjacent to the ankle joint it is easy to palpate
• Boss: a smooth, round, broad eminence
• Articulation: an area where adjacent bones are in contact at a joint (via cartilage/fibrous tissue)
• Condyle: a rounded articular process
• Epicondyle: a nonarticular projection adjacent to a condyle
• Head: a large, rounded, usually articulated end of a bone
• Shaft: the long, straight section between the ends of a long bone

• Epophysis: usually the end proportion or extremity of a long bone that is expanded for articulation
• Neck: the section of a bone between the head and the shaft
• Torus: a bony thickening
• Ridge: a linear bony elevation, often rugose
• Crest: a prominent, usuallu sharp and thin ridge of bone (often formed between adjacent muscle masses)
• Line: a raised linear surface, not as thick as a torus or as sharp as a crest
• Hamulus: a hook-shaped projection
• Facet: a small articular surface, or a tooth contact

• Fossa: a depressed are (usually broad and shallow)
• Fovea: a pit-like, depressed area (usually smaller than a fossa)
• Groove: a long pit or furrow
• Sulcus: a long, wide groove
• Fontanelle: a space between vranial bones of an infant 
• Suture: where adjacent bones of the skull articulate
• Foramen: an opening through a bone (usuallu a passage for blood vessels and nerves)
• Canal: a tunnel-like, extended foramen
• Meatus: a short canal
• Sinus: a cavity within a cranial bone
• Alveolus: a tooth socket