Italy

Constitutional Monarchy- King was head of state, commander of armed forces, dealt with treaties and trade

Era of Stability- Victor Emmanuell II 1900-1945

• Liberal politicians= social elites- middle class professioals
• Vote extended to 2m men only
• Parliament chosen by wealthy educated- not masses
• Trasformismo (linked to Giovanni Giolitti)- Political manoevuring - Kept same politicians in power- didn't addres social & eco problems
• Elite did not reflect what the people wanted

1900- Italin Socialists Party (PSI)- 1913 winning over 20% vote- change=  Reform V Revoloution

Italia Irridenta: Nationalists demanded, Nice, Savoy, teratories in South Tyrol, Istria and Dalmatia (all in Austrian possession)

• Nationalists- wanted Empire to rival Britian France
• Liberals: Colonies to distract from internal issues

Abyssinia-FAIL humiliating defeat battle of Adowa(1896)- prestige- italians blamed Gov

1911 Giolitti- SUCCESSarmy to attack Libya- Success defeated Turkish forces (October 1912)

Pope=Tension:

• control over Papal States- Italy created = Land taken away
• Threat of socialism- Pope ordered Bishops- advise Catholics to vote against socialism

Political Challenges

Development of industry in the North (1880's & 1890's) Founding of Trade unions- Demandes: Higher wages, organised strikes- as depression hit (1898)

• Bava Beccaris Massacre- 200 killed (Milan 1898)
• King Umberto assasinated (1900)
• General railway strike (1902)
• General Strike (1904)
• Red Week- Riots & Demonstrations (June 1914)

(Remember: Burger King; BGR/KG - 1889, 1902, J1914, 1900, 1904)

Tripple Alliance

Italy formws Triple Alliance with Germany & Austria Hungary (traditional enemy): 

• guarantee security -(BUT limited threat from France)
• complicated nationalist ambitions to gain Italia Irridenta

BUT: Italy refused to act on terms of alliance at outbreak of war

Giolitti wanted reform to tackle Soicalism:

• Laws to control female (11 hours a day) and child labour (under 12)
• Social insurance & pension schemes
• Extension of Franchise to all adult males 30+
• Taxes on food reduced
• Increased public spending on public works by 50%

But- All brought in via trasformismo - extension of franchise to ensure continues support for Libyan war

• Increase to 8m voters
• 1913 elections- voters supported Socialitst or Catholics
• Lower classes- shokeepers, civil servants wories about growth of Socialism- look for alternative

North South Divide

North- Significant changes between1896-1914

• expansion in  profitable crops: grapes olives rice etc & dairy farming
• More efficient farming: Technology-Tuscany (mechanisation, fertilisers, irrigation)
• Schemed for land reclamation & drainage -Po Valley= commercial farming - hired landless peasants: poor living conditions & low wages
• Land holdings divided amongst large number of peasants - owner sold produce for profit- Peasants-share of crop( Land owners maximise profits squeeze peasants share)

South- Little change before the war

• Dry, hostile climate- poor soil & Barren hill sides
• Considered backwards - poverty, low income, land controlled by few landowners (lived off rent- pesant tennants)
• High unemployment -pesants seasonal labour jobs or emigrating
• Gov schemes transport and industrial subsadies had little impact
• Malaria- pre 1900-15,000 people died every year (advances in medicine- low lying and unhabtable countryside-Basilicata- now farmed)

BUT-

• 1914 industry still infant comared to European industrial nations 
•  Italy lacked Key resources: Iron Coal (coal= 12% imports 1914)
• annual production=11.5m ton steel = less than 1m ton

Industrialisation=expanding towns and cities

•  population in Milan doubled 1871 an 1911

• Cities not equipped- poor workers=overcrowded & unsanitary conditions. Taxes fell on poor -contributed to rise of Socialism
• Education- illiterate fell from 42% 1871- 11%in 1911 - South Fall from 88%-65% -Illiteracy Major problem in parts of South
• Little to reform agriculture, backwardness, power of landowners & Mafia
• Peasants remain- poverty stricken, unskilled, illiterate= difficult to employ
• Italians chose to emigrate- 1914 6m/41m Italians  lived and worked abroad

Prime Minister Salandra-Italy enter war to obtain teritory

If Tripple Alliance Won=Italy little oppertunity to reclaim teritoys from Austria V If Entente powers won -not be very sympathetic to Italian Ambitions=

Treaty of London (April 1915)-Signed in Secret

Britain and France promised:

•  Dalmatia, Istria,
•  South Tyrol,
• Trieste,
•  Trentino,
•  Colonies

- May 1915= enter war on side of Britain & France

5 million men served in Army- Majority conscripts from rural areas (industrial working class= armaments)

Appalling conditions, Meagre rations, Low pay, Harsh Discipline, high desertion rates= Low Morale

Caporetto (October 1917)- MAJOR DEFEAT

• Surprise Austro-German Attack:
• 700,00 retreaing over 100 mile (70 miles into Italy)=
• 300/000 wounded, 300,000 taken prisoner
• Gov promise major reforms after

Vittorio Vento (Octobr 1918)-Victory

Austro-Hungarian empire on verge of defeat- Italy wins smaller battle- 500,000 Austrian prisoners of War captured- Victory remembered by Italian people

National Debt- Borrowed large amounts from Britain US - increased 16bn lira 1914- 85bn 1919

Inflation- Increased X4- affected cost of living, purchasing power of wages & savings

Industry- Munitions industry done well in war, now no need profits fall dramatically

Trade Unions & Strikes- Discipline strict- No strikes in war- Long hours & fall in value of wages = wave of strikes 1919 1million + workers went on strikes, membership of unions increased to two million in 1929

Agriculture- Conscription soaked up unemployment & inflation (wiped out peasant debts)- peasants Demand Land- soldiers promised land at end of war

Unemployment- 5 million soldiers returning form war forced out of army= no work (unemployment passed 2 million 1919)

Mutilated Victory

Prime Minister Orlando: promised - obtain terirories & colonies promised in Paris Peace Conference 1919

What italy Wanted- Promised treaty London- Gained Treaty St Germain

• Sout Tyrol     Yes                                 Yes
• Trentino        Yes                                 Yes
• Istria              Yes                                 Yes
• Dalmatia        Yes                                 No-
• Colonies        Yes                                 No
• Fiume             No                                 No

Limited reward- for 600,000 dead,massive debts, huge increae in the cost of living- Lib Gov Blamed

Fiume= port on the Adriatic sea - part of Austro hungarian empire- Nationalists demanded government demanded claim Fiume-FAIL

September 1919- D'Annunzio-  SUCCESS:

• 300 ex-soldiers siezed control over Fiume
• 15 months
• Liberal Gov failed to do anythin
•  message use force to achieve political aims- image of weakness)

D'Annunzio- highly critical of gov- inspired Mussolini:

• Speeches
• Rhythmic chants( Eja Eja)
• Followers were blackshirts & skull and cross bones
• Used castor oil to humiliate opponent
• Roman Salute

Divided Liberals-Giolitti against intervention

• Unpopular Liberals
• Gov critisised by Nationalists
• in favour of war angered at lack of success
• Gov tried to Implaiament reform (bread subsadies 8 hour days)
• failed to solve real problems
• Fiume= Gov had betrayed Italy failing to support D'Annunzio

Political changes:

• Liberals tried to maintain trasformismo& coalition gov
•  when Libs formed alliance with one party loss support of other
• Result: shot-lived, weak coalition- continued till Mussolini took control (October 1922)

Proportional Rep:

• 54 consituencies
• 508 deputies could be elected= Encouraged divided political party system
• Introduced to reward soldiers = undermine Giolittis political system PPI & PSI deputies unlikley to participate in trasformism

Univerasl Male Suffarage- All adult Males right to Vote= reflect what Italy wanted

Liberals fragile- no measures to cope with Eco & political problems after war- couldn't govern with parliamentary opposition= loss support and political instability

Liberals failed to give power to police and army- prevent collapse of law and order.

• October 1922-
• Libs lost control events and politics being conducted on streets with violence.
• liberals fearful of threat of socialism- believed only Fascism could crush socialism

Italian people unsatisfied with Liberals- Italy descended into chaos- Lawlessness widespread- Fascism offered Italians a firm gov in an era of instability

Mussolini- regime that would provide dynamic ladership

23 March 1919- Milan-

• Fascil di Combattimento ( Combat groups) first meeting of new movment
•  100 people 'Fascists of the first hour'
•  designed to appeal to patriotic Italians- Commited to violence as political wepon

June 1919- First programme= Left Wing- Republic (abolish monarchy), Church (confiscate Church land and property)

Election FAILURE (Nov 1919)-

• Early movement not dicaplined
• in election Mussolini failed to become deputy
• (5,000/270,000 votes in Milan)-=Failed to win a seat in parliament
• Post War- Mussolini exploited Liberals failings

Revival spontantious =(1920-21)- Po Valley, Ferraran Tuscany, Cremona & Bologna

RAS- Rutheless leadership -built independant empiires to overthrow Gov- used intimidation and violence to destroy Socialism- established their own control:

• Italo Balbo
• Roberto Farinacci
• Dino Grandi

Fascist Squads: made up from former soldiers (felt not rewarded from Gov) - & middle class students (exiting contrast to old Liberal men in charge)

Support=

• Landowners middle classes-
• prepared to pay & equip Fascist squads to defeat Socialists unions (Federterra) 
•  Industrialists (Fiat & Pirelli funded fascist squads)-
• Middle classes= petty bourgeoisie
• (lowerclasses including teachers)- All thought they would do well under Fascist Rule

Fascist Backlash- November 1920 use of Fascist violence= formation of Soicalist Council in Bologne turned into riot

Violence continued through winter and srpring 1921- Destroying 80 trade union offices - 200 dead 800 wounded

Mussolini=

• Charismatic speaker skilled propaganda(ist)
• lack of ideological commitment (change views to suite audience)
•  persue 'dual policy'- intimidation & violence masked of respectibility (including illigal tactics)
• owned II Popolo d'Italia (important propaanda tool)
• Prepared to use violence to put pressure on Liberals & King- March on Rome

Relised if come to power had to become a right-wing movement- secure support from elites, conservatives & middle classes.- made out elite had much to gain- strong expansionist Italy- hated democracy and parliament

Electoral Pact (May 1921)- Mussolini entered parliament- SUCCESS

Liberals fail to gain majority=electoral pact with Mussolini-Mussolini MP's support Giolitti when elected in Parliament- Fascists 35 seats- 'air of respectability'

November 1921- Mussolini & Ras unite to form PNF

Dual policy- 1921-22

• Newspapers publicise Fascist activitys
• Present Fascism as National Movement- vision of New Italy
• Fascism was anti-Scoailist crusade

Fascism noq the "defender of property and law and order": Offered: Stable Government:

• Strong Leadership
• Enforce Law and Order
• Scoail Reform
• Improvement in Social and Eco condisitons
• End to Class division

March on Rome- October (1922)

• Mussolini wanted to be elected Prime Minister legaly- But under pressurefrom the Ras to sieze power
• Believed the psycological threat of a March on Rome engough to make Liberal agree to becoming prime Minister
• King under pressure an feared ciil war- indicisive and lacked confidence (feared bieng replaced by his cousin- Duke of Aosta)- pressure MoR= Mussolini appointed Prime Minister 30th Oct 1922
• Needed to form a coalition Gov- King would not let him remove parlliament- not got compleate control or Ras- Had to keep Ras and Elite sweet but sepearte
• First Movement- 4/14 senior ministers Fascist
• Mussolini- Prime Minister & Minister of Interior & Minister of Foreign Affairs

Convinced MP's violence of socialism so serious he needed emergency powers (reality socialist threat non existent) -

1- Rule By Decree got- parliament to grant him rule by decree for 12 months= Laws without parliament- MP's Massive vote of confidence

2 Control Fascist Party- looked to consolidate his position:

(1). Grand Council of Fascism (Dcember 1922)-right to make ll appointments to the Grand Council

( 2.) National Militia (January 1923)- Reduced influence of Ras, turinign Fascist Squads into national Militia e.e (private army 30,000men)

Proposed to change electoral stsyem - make Fascists largest party

1. Acerbo Law (July 1923)

polled 25&vote + = 2/3 seats, be able to control and no-one be able to vote them out of power:

•  Fascist squads- smash hostile newspapers &rival parties
• Mussolini= Minister of Interior- instruct police to stand aside
• Fascists- important positions ing Gov

2.Acerbo Election (April 1924):

Acerbo law in pratice- April 24- Fascists secured 374/535 seats- Corrupt, black shirt violence, intimidation, vote rigging. (BUT:Socialists & Communists 2.5 million votes)

Mussilinis opposition: Opposition parties, king could sack prime minister, army

• Before General election MP's trie to publicise Fascist violence.
• Socialist Spokesman: Giacomo Matteotti- produced evidence of fascist terror & vote rigging
• 10 June 1924- Matteotti abducted and stabbed to death
• Evidence of Mussolinis involvment= tension & criticism- opposition urged King to sack Mussolini
• Reaction: Mussolini made consessions to secure position- resigned ost as Interior Minister- made national militia swear oathe of loyalty to King.
• King throughout 1923 not go against Mussolini fear spark civil war.
• July 1924- Mussolin introduced press censorship- August banned meetins by opposition parties
• Ras unhappy- demamd Mussolii secure power
• 3 January 1925- sealled his move to dictatorship - gave himself much greater power

1925-27

Censorship-From 1925-

• Journalists registered with Fascist Authorities
• Anti-Fascist newspapers shut down (anti-F writing seen as treason)
• Newspaper editors personally liable
• Intense campaign of intimidation & violence against press
• By 1930- Fascists controlled 2/3 newspapers- daily instructions of what to write

Leggi Fascistissime:

• During 1925- Laws ban opposition parties & trade unions
• 1926- All local elections abolished
• Elected Mayores replaced by Fascist officials
• Opposition deputies expelled from Parliament

Special Courts-

• Try political crimes
• No trial or Jury
• 5,000 political opponents imprisoned up to1943 10,000 kept in'confino'(exiled island around Italy)
• 400 people executed
• Death Penalty for treason- Nov 1925

Fascist Squads

• 50,000 armed militia intimidate opponents- beat victims- destroy property-(est 2,000 killed by 1926)
• Violence reduced after 1925- threat enough
• Became legitimate force'- national militia helping police

(1926- reporting to King not Parliament- authorised 'rule by decree'

OVRA=December 1926 "Law for the defence of the state"-established secret police:

• Power to arrest & hold suspects without trial
• Carry out searches
• tap telephones
• intercept mail
• Acts of violence against political opponents
• 700- full time agents-reliant on network of informers

Decree of Public Security (1926)-control & surveillance anyone based on rumour

OVRA: attacked Freemasons, Mafia

Once Mussolini has established power Fascist terror unnecessary

Propaganda

 Mussolini's domestic and foreign policies hailed triumph

• Cinema- 25 Fascist propaganda news reels
• Newspapers: Reporting on crime- forbidden - Gov grants so bias newspapers
• Radio-Praised Mussolini broadcast his speeches in full- 1930- every village=communal radio limited in south and countryside- radios given to schools
• Posters: simple slogans images praising Mussolini (everywhere)
• Rallies- Mass parades organised- impress italians, sense of belonging
• Sport- participation encouraged & spectating (successful teams = boost national pride)
• Ancient Rome: used to justify & inspire Fascist policy "propaganda a substitute for action"

Cult of 'ilDuce'- intended t build support- Superhuman saviour- destiny to reform Italy to former greatness

• Supposed work 20 hours a day on Gov business- Left office light on to give this impression
• Duce infalible- Alway right "Mussolini is god!"-poster slogans
• Family man, Horse riding, planting trees, athletic, often stripped at the waist, sking, diving, cars at high speed, airplanes, pictures of him wearing glassed banned- age NEVER mentioned
• Inctulectual writer, poet, cultured man- read all European classics-photos of him playing the violin

Impact of Duce:

Questionable- how many people bought into it- quantitiy made it difficult to ignore: Italians just accepted- he started to believe his own propaganda

Eco policy (1922-25)

• Inherited eco problems:
• Large budget deficit
• 500,000 unemployed
• Limited raw materials
• Traditiona N/S divide

Mussolini came to power  when italin industry beginign to boom- Claimed responsability for exports doubling (textiles cars agricultural- doubled 1922-5)

• Appointed tresury minister: Alberto Stefani:
• `Limited Gov speding
• Reduced state intervention
• Reduced taxes on companies
• Banned socialis and Cathoilic trade uions-  industrialists budges surplus unemployment fell to 122,000

1926- Boom coming to an end: exchange rate for Lira falling= Stefani sacked

By 1926: 150lire to pound- 1927 Mussolini re-evaluated it to 90 Lira to the pound= Short term increased Mussolinis prestige- Long term: damages Italian economy:

• Italian exports more expensive
• Low exchange rate deterred tourists
• worsening the balence of re-payments

Economic Depression -1929 Wall Street crash:

• Large umbers of companies colapsted
• car production down 50%
• Un-employment risen 2 million1933
• Introduced public work schemes- paid by tax: motorways, powerplants electric railways(cycle got people back to work thus increase in emand- money to spend)

Mid 30's- War in Europe or Africa inevitable must prepare- aim establish Fascist prestige abroad

• promote industry
• Economy to become self sufficiant

Result of Eco sanctiond League of Nations- after Italys in vaison of Abyssinia 1935;

• Engourages: Steel shipbuiliding- government contracts
• Major companies allowed to merge- Fiat=Car Pirelli= rubber

Success?

• Eco not self sufficiant by war 1940; (problem unsolved)
• Production Slow: Coal, Oil, Iron ore
• Government spending on armaments expensive=deeper debt= Massive cuts military spending & tax increases

1920's- Mussolini first proclaimed 'corperate state' (new way of organising/running economy)

Theory:

• Corperations for each sector of industry- agriculture/comerce
• Each corporation- Employers & Fascist trade unions
• Employer/Trade union disagree=court of labour (Ministary of Corporations)- dispute resolved

Purpose:-

•  Maximise profit- good of nation
• Avoid disputes/strikes as Britain & France
• Allow Business & industrial elite-run industry make profits

Reality

• Employers- too much power over workers (strikes banned)
• Employers-no provide annual paid holidays- alter pay& working conditions little consultation
• Leader of trade unions- Chosen by Fascist Party- Sided with employers
• Conflicts not solved=Suppressed
• Industrial elite= support Mussolini
• Mass bureaucracy- corrupt officials trivial regulations

Mussolini-focus on projects which = power & prestige (industrial) not agricultural

Battle for Grain 1925

• Began in 1925- promote Fascist Power & National self sufficiency
• Traditionally needed to import grain to feed people
• gov grants- enable Farmers buy tractors, fertilisers machinery for wheat production- Farmers guaranteed high prices for grain

Success:

• average harvest increased 5.5m ton p/y (early 20's)- 7m tonn (1930's)
• Grain imports declined- 75% drop (1925-35)
• Appeared success-Mussolini credit- press photographs

Failure:

• land in central/southern area unsuitable for such crop- handed over for wheat
• Could not be sustained- (max 2 yr) yield declined years later
• Citrus fruits grapes olives- dropped= decline in agricultural exports
• Tariffs on foreign cereals subsidies agricultural production

Land reclamation schemes- Pontine Marshes (50km Rome)- Propaganda show piece

Success:

• Malarial swamps- drained
• Netwrok of small farms set up- owned ex-service men
• Public health improved
• Provided thousands of Jobs during depression

Battle for Land-1928

• Land reclaimed- limited- much land lost 1943-35- neglect
• Ag Workers- wage cuts than indus in 1930's= emigration
• Emigration- 200,000 p/y Italians/southerners- to USA-  USA stop imigration from 1920= left countryside for towns- cant cope- increase slums Turin && Milan
• Population of Rome doubled
• Mussolini tried to prevent further migration

(Fascist policys- help large landowners rather than landless pesants- pesants need land-families

Law 1922- Parliament- distribute large stated to pesants- Mussolini dropped this- fear of offending landowners- (political supoporters)=n increase in backwardness:

• Richest land owners= 40%+ of land

King:

• Alliance of intrests- Failed to remove M over Mattiotti crisis- need support to retain throne
• Mussolini not remove King- fear of offending elites
• 1930-King= little responsibility
• (King=removed Mussolini-July 1943)

Gov & Judiciary: - Replaced opponents- baristers & Solicitors opposed to Fascism

Army:

• Expanded Armed forces
• Adopted roman salute
• Fascist badge on uniform
• Tension between army & Fascist Militia

Mussolin could not control Italy with Catholic oppisition- agreements over 'Roman  Question' = increased public support:

• Rstored Catholic Educaion in stateschools
• ncreasing gov payments to priests - secured confidnece of Pope(had previously with drew support PPI-1923)
• Nuteralised support of Church
• (BUT: Fascism didnt neciserrily have support of Vatican)

Lateran Agreements (1929) - ended conflict between church & State

Laterain Accords: Pope recognised Kingdom of Italy and posession of  Rome & Old-Papal States V State recogise Popes control over Vatican City & Part of rome:

Pope recieved compo 750m lira cash & 1bn Lira bonds-surrender claim to Rome

Concordat:

• Priests could not belong to political parites
• No divorce without concent of Church
• Catholic education compulsory in state schools
• State pay salaries of Clergy
• Catholic youth section independant
• Pope appoint bishops - gov could veto

Outcome:

• Couldnt remove Catholic influece
• Increase popularity of the regime with catholics
• Increased Mussolinis standing as  international statesman

Tension 1931- clash, state tried to suppress Schurch sponsored club "Catholic Action"- Rival fascist youth group, 1938 Pope Pius IX regretted relatioship

Battle Of Births (1927)- aim= increase poulation 40m -60 by 1950- contraception banned Youth= Soldiers for armies & clonies -easily influenced: 12 children p/family

Incentives:

• Marriage loans- reduced per child
• Man with 6+  children exempt from taxes
• Healthcare % Welfate benefis
• 1929- Maternity leave
• Prized-most pprolific mothers

Penalties:

• Singles- heavily taxed
• Childless= no jobs & promotions in Gov
• Railways sacked all women appointed since 1915 - exeption war widows
• From 1933- only 10% workforce could be women in public sector (1938- extended to all companies)

Battle of Births = Fail

• marriage remained unchanged
• birthrate declined until 1936 (increased slightly after)
• Population up- 44m (result of emigration control to US & fall in death rate)

Youth Control Schools-

• 'get em whilst their young'
• 1925- teachers political view= dismissed
• 1929- teachers- swear oath of loyalty to regime
• 1931- Fascist Teachers Association- membership compulsory by 1937 -( compulsory black shirt)
• Curriculum text book replaced- Fascist ideals = Italy forefront of history- Lies!!!:
• Teachers- stress Mussolini's genius
• Portrait in every class room

(patriotism, manliness, obedience & fascist Values)

• School expenditure doubled
• school leaving age raised- 1m children in p/s
• illiteracy fell

Opera Nazi Bililla (ONB)- 1926:

1930's membership compulsory-7m joined

Activitys:

• Military training & fascist ideology
• Camping
• Sport
• Fitness training

Girls:

• Sewing
• Singing
• Child Care

Mussolini overthrown= ONB colapsed

Dopolavoro- 1925- provide bias activitys Mid 1930- controlled: - NOT COMPULSORY

• All football clubs
• 1,350 theatres
• 2,000 drama societys
• 3,000 brass bands
• 6,000 libiarys

(every village/town= min 1 dopolovoro clubhouse) - 1939 4m members

Pros; Popular- free only lip service= Fascist ideas -physical & military training, focus= good time

Cons: attempt to distract from Social/Eco problems

Mussolini's aims:

• Achieve great power status
• Italian prestige -'lame duck' after WW1
• Italian dominance- Mediterranean, Adriatic, Balkans
• Build Italian empire over seas
• Leadership & Achievements (personal)
• Aggressive & Adventurous foreign policy- divert attention from Eco and failing domestic policy

Britain:= Gibraltar, Suez Canal, Malta, Cyprus = Naval Power

France = Corsica, Tunisia, Algeria & Morocco = Naval power - Both challenge Italy expansion

Corfu Aug 1923

• Ongoing border issue- Albania & Greece
• Italian General & 4 other Italians murdered
• Mussoini Blamed Greece- apology & compo= 50m lira
• Greece- LoN sort out- Mussolini= Italian fleet to Corfu- Shelling Island
• Critisim: Mussolii- 'gunboad diplomacy'
• Victory: B & F- ordered Greece to pay - Success 'Dynamic Fascism'
• Mussolini-Popularity Up - need to maintain good relations with Britain & France

Fiume( Feb 1924):

• Agreement reached with Yogoslavia -Fiume  handed to Italy in Pact of Rome
• Popular - prestige

Abyssinia (Ethopia) October 1935:

• Not colonised by European powers
• Lacked means to fight back- easy to invade

Aims:

• Imperal Status
• revenge humiliation of Adowa (1896)
• Consolidate Italian position- East Africa
• Destiny of Roman Empire
• Teritory for Italians to Emigrate
• exploit resourece- Oil & markets for Italian Goods
• Divert attention eco problems
• Continued support for Mussolini
• Fascism-Force to rekoned with

Thought: B & F more concrned with Nazi Germany- Sympathetic to Italins Adventures= minimal risk

Outcome:

• Height of his popularity
• War won quickly
• 1,000 casualties & Italian East Africa created

Marked a turning point':

• Budget Deficit increased by 660%
• Abyssinia's fought Guerilla Warfare- Italy maintained army - 250,000 men
• Abyssinia- not rich in resources- no oil
• 1939 only 2% Italian trade with Abyssinia

Lacarno Treaties (October 1925):Mussolini- 'Honest Statesmanship' - confirming German Western Boarders - Era stability

Reality:

• Propaganda Exercise - speed boat late- press-
• Only there for few mins to sign and leave
• 100+ jounalists boycotted aperance- protest- Fascist burtality

Kellogg-briand Pact (Aug 1928)

• Britain France USA- War not used as diplomatic Wepon
• BUT: Mussolini-  'absurd proposal' - not meaningfull
• Propaganda -highlight his role - international statesman

Spanish Civil War-July 1936-Wanted to establish Fascist style Gov in Spain

Mussolini sent(Spain):

• 75,000 men
• 950 tanks
• 700 aircraft

Impact: -costly= unprepared for war 1940

• 14bn Lira
• Drain on weapons/materials/resources (1/3 military strength)
• Troops withdrawn-1939
• 4,000 killed - 12,000 wounded
• Britain & France remained neutral

Austria (July 1934)

• Wary of Hitlers intenions- Austria (M regarded Italian Sphere of Influence)
• July 1934- Austrian Nazis attempt seize power- assasinating Austrian Prime Minister: Dolfuss
• Mussolini=4 divisions to boarder (40,000 men):
• Determined demonstrate guardian of Austrian independance

Rome-Berlin Axis (November 1936)

• After Abyssinia- Mussilini increasingly associated with Nazi Germany
• Italy- Foreign minister= Count Ciano - Signed Rome- Berlin Axis= Mutual support for each other
• Extended to Anti-Comintern Pact (November 1937)

Anschluss March 1938

• Mussolini didnt intervne- Germany united with Austria- March 1938
• Still angry with Britain & France- Abyssinia -didint want to jepordise relationshipItalians= unhappy- Germany Neigbour= Mussolini popularity slumped
• Mussolini didnt intervene = German occupation of Prague- March 1939 - Fear & Admiration

Pact of Steel (May 1939)

• Italy= commit all armed forces if Germany became involved in War
• Hitler not want war for another 3 years
• Mussolini- knew of plans invade Poland
• Italy not in position to fight
• War could be unpopular
• Would not be involved for Italian interests

Decision to fight with Germany (June 1940)

• Outbreak of War= Sept 1939
• Mussolini declared Italy= 'Non-Beligerant' - Italians= happy
• 1940- Fall: Poland, Denmark, Norway, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg & France= got to join war (or =)  Europe dominated by Germany
• War= Chance: military glory
• Neutrality= Mussolini pathetic

Conduct of War (1940-1943)

• Hope to achieve cheap- significant territorial gains
• Military campaign= Disastrous failure
• Thought war over in 6 months

War & Economy

Lacked essential war Materials= Oil, steel & explosives= dependent on German coal

Problems- large scale armaments production:

• Fall in imports- coal
• Shortages of oil
• Bombing- industries & homes= low morale
• Agricultural production= fall- lack of machinery & people (conscription)= Food Shortages = Rationing (150g bread p/d)
• Shortages: Clothes, shoes, coffee, petrol, soap
• Increase taxes
• Increase Strikes- long hours
• Wide spread anti-Fascist Graffiti- increase demands -end war
• Soldiers Stories= lack of preparation, shortages materials & clothing & tanks, poor leadership

War & Military

• Under strenght divisions
• Dated weponry
• Inadiquatly armed tanks
• Navy lacked= Aircraft &fuel

Result= FAIL

• Greece (October 1940)= Disaster
• Battle of Taranto (November 1940)- loss 5 warships
• Britain defeats Italian forces=1941- North Africa
• 400,000prisoners= LOSS OF ALL ITALIAN COLONIES
• Italian tropps sent to fght Russia
• Declare War USA December 1941
• War turn against Germany = El Alamein (Nov 1942) & Stalingrad (Feb 1943)

Outcome July 1943

• Fascist regime crumbles - Eco & social chaos
• Mussolini lost support of elite & leading Fascists
• July 1943- US invade Sicily & Rome bombed
• Fascist Grand Council- vote to end Mussolini's rule
• Dismissed by King July 1943