Approaches

Behaviourists identified two important forms of learning: classical conditioning and operant conditioning

Classical conditioning is learning through association and was first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov showed that dogs could be conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell if that sound was repeatedly presented at the same time that they were given food. Before conditioning the food was an unconditioned stimulus and salivation was the unconditioned response. The bell acts as a neutral stimulus which produces no response. During conditioning the bell and the food are paired together and the dog learns to associate the bell with the food. The bell then comes a conditioned stimulus and produces a conditioned response of salivation.

Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences. Skinner argued that learning is an active process. There are 3 types of consequences of behaviour:

• Positive reinforcement: recieving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed
• Negative reinforcement: when performing a behaviour stops something unpleasant happening
• Punishment: an unpleasant consequence of behaviour

Skinner box: A rat was placed in a cage. Every time he activated the lever a food pellet was released (positive reinforcement). The rat quickly learnt to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box. This suggests that positive reinforcement increases the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated.

• P - Real life application
• E - Behaviourism has increased our understanding of the causes of phobias and attachment
• E - This is furthered supported by the 'little Albert' study conducted by Watson and Rayner
• L -

Bandura argued that we learn through observation and imitation of others’ behaviour.

Four mediational processes were identified:

• Attention - the extent to which we notice certain behaviours
• Retention - how well the behaviour is remembered
• Motor reproduction - the ability of the observer to perform the behaviour
• Motivation - the will to perform the behaviour determined by vicarious reinforcement

Vicarious reinforcement is indirect reinforcement which occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour. This is a key factor in imitation

Imitation is more likely if the person is seen as a role model. A person becomes a role model if they are seen to possess similar characteristics i.e age or gender

Bobo doll study:

Bandura recorded the behaviour of young children who watched an adult behave in an agressive way towards a Bobo doll. The adult hit the doll with a hammer and shouted abuse at it. When  these children were later observed playing with various toys including a bobo doll they behaved much more agressively than those who had observed a non-agressive adult

This supports SLT as it shows that children imitate behaviour of role model even if the behaviour is aggressive

• P - It lacks external validity
• E - as it was a lab experiment
• E - so it lacks generalisabilty as the task didn't reflect the way particpants behave in normal life. The children were agressive towards a doll which they know doesn't feel pain and can't retaliate
• L - The research may tell us very little about how children may behave towards another child and therfore it might not be a valid explanation of how behaviour is learnt

• P - Bandura makes little reference to the impact of biological factors on social learning
• E - One consistent finding in the study was that boys were more agressive than girls
• L - This matter because it doesn't take into account factors such as testosterone which is a hormone present in boys

• P - Theory can be used to explain the influence of the media on behaviour
• E - This has been used in the case of Jamie Bulgers murder

Schemas: packages of ideas and information developed through experience. They act as a mental framework for the interpretation of incoming of information. They help us to interpret incoming information quickly and effectively, this prevents us from being overwhelmed by the vast amount of information we perceive in our environment. However it can also lead to distortion. This could be the cause of inaccuracies in areas such as eyewitness testimony. It can also explain some errors we make when perceiving optical illusions.

Theoretical and computer models:

Cognitive neuroscience: scientific study of the influence of brain structures. This is done using brain imaging techniques such as fMRI and PET scans.

• P - Lack egolocial validtity
• E - Often use artificial stimuli
• E - tests of memory using word lists
• L - It means that it might not be a valid explanation of how mental processes affect behaviour

• P - Real life application
• E -

Twin studies are used to determine the likelihood that certain traits have a genetic basis by comparing the concordance rates. If identical twins are found to have higher concordance rates than non-identical twins this would suggest a genetic basis.

Genotype is the genetic makeup of an individual whereas phenotype is the characteristics of an individual

Charles Darwin proposed the theory of natural selection. He argued that genetically determined characteristics or behaviour that enhances our chances of survival and reproduction will be passed on to the next generation,

The central nervous system:

• The brain - the centre of all conscious awareness
• The spinal cord - responsible for reflex actions

The periphal nervous system: transmits messages to and from the CNS

• Somatic nervous system - controls muscle movement and receives information from sensory receptors
• Autonomic nervous system - governs vital functions in the body divided into
• Sympathetic state (increases functions)
• Parasympathetic state (decreases functions)

Sensory neurons - Carry messages to the PNS to the CNS. They have long dendrites and short axons

Relay neurons - Connect the sensory neurons to the motor neurons. They have short dendrites and long axons

Motor neurons - Connect the CNS to effects such as muscles and glands. They have short dendrites and long axons