Unit 5

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  • Created by: sally
  • Created on: 13-05-13 22:06
What attaches bones to muscles?
Tendons
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What attaches muscle to muscle?
Ligaments
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What is a flexor and give an example?
A muscle that bends at a joint when it contracts. e.g. Bicep
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What is an extensor and give an example?
A muscle that straightens at a joint when it contracts. e.g Tricep
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What term is used for muscles that work together to move a bone?
Antagonistic pairs.
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Skeletal muscle is made up of large, long bundles of what?
Muscle fibres.
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What is the cell membrane called of muscle fibres?
Sarcolemma
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What is the muscle fibres cytoplasm called?
Sarcoplasm
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What are the folds called in the sarcoplasm?
Transverse tubules
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Where are the sarcoplasmic reticulum and what does it do?
It runs through the sarcoplasm and stores calcium ions.
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What are the two myofibrils in muscle fibres?
Myosin and Actin
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Which myofibril is seen as a dark band and called A bands?
Myosin
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Which myofibril is seen as a light band and called I bands?
Actin
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What are the short units in muscle fibres called?
Sarcomeres
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What does the H zone contain?
Only myosin filaments.
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What happens to the sarcomere in muscle contraction?
It gets shorter.
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What protein covers the actin-myosin binding site?
Tropomyosin
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What holds tropomyosin in place?
Troponin
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What is the functions of calcium in muscle contraction?
Binds to Troponin which makes it move away from tropomyosin. It also activates ATPase which breaks down ATP to produce energy for the muscle to contract.
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Features of a slow twitch muscle fibre
Contract slowly, used for posture, good for endurance, releases energy slowly.
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Features of a fast twitch muscle fibre
Contract quickly, used for fast movement, good for short bursts, energy released quickly.
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What is lactate fermentation?
Anaerobic respiration
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What happens in lactate fermentation?
Glucose is converted to pyruvate, reduced NAD transfers hydrogen to pyruvate to form lactate and NAD.
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How can animals break down lactic acid?
Cells can convert lactic acid back to pyruvate. Liver cells can convert lactic acid back to glucose.
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What does the SAN do?
Send electrical currents to the atrial walls causing them to contract, they also send it to the AVN.
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What does the AVN do?
Passes electrical currents to the Bundle of His and then the Purkyne fibres causing the ventricles to contract. With a slight delay.
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What prevents the SAN sending electrical currents to the AVN straight away?
Collagen fibres
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In an ECG what does a P wave show?
Contraction of the atria
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In an ECG what does a QRS complex show?
The contraction of the ventricles.
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In an ECG what does the T wave show?
The relaxation of the ventricles
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What is tachycardia?
Increased heart rate
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What is fibrillation?
Irregular heart beat
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In an ECG how can you tell someone has a problem with the AVN?
No t waves
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How does the body increase oxygen intake and CO2 output?
Increase breathing rate and depth. Increased heart rate.
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What part of the brain controls breathing rate and heart rate?
Medulla
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What does the inspiratory system do in the medulla?
Sends impulses to the intercostal and diaphragm muscles so the lung volume increases.
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What does the expiratory system do in the medulla?
Send impulses to the intercostal and diaphragm muscles to relax so the lungs deflate.
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What inhibits the inspiratory system and starts the expiratory system?
Stretch receptors
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How does exercise increase breathing rate?
CO2 in the blood increases, decreasing the PH, chemoreceptors detect this change and sends the signal to the medulla.
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What is ventilation rate and the equation?
Volume of air breathed in or out in a period of time. Tidal volume X breathing rate
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What sends impulses to the medulla when blood pressure is too high?
Pressure receptors
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What is cardiac output and the equation?
Total volume of blood pumped by a ventricle every minute. Heart rate X Stroke volume
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What is tidal volume?
The volume of air in each breath.
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How do mammals reduce body temperature?
Sweating, hair lies flat and vasodilation.
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How do mammals increase body temperature?
Shivering, hair stands up, vasoconstriction.
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What controls body temperature?
Hypothalamus
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What detects changes in body temperature?
Thermoreceptors
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What does a transcription factor do?
Bind to DNA sites to increase or decrease rates of transcription
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How do hormones change temperature?
In cold temperatures thyroxine is released which binds to the hormone receptor, it increases transcription rate and therefore metabolic rate.
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What are the advantages of key hole surgery?
Less blood loss, less scarring, reduced recovery time and pain.
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Where are the cruciate ligaments?
In the middle of the knee.
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What is used to replace body parts?
Prostheses
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What do anabolic steroids do?
Increase strength, speed and stamina by increasing muscle size. Increase aggression.
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What do stimulants do?
Speed up reactions, reduce fatigue. Increases aggression.
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What do narcotic analgesics do?
Reduce pain so injuries dont affect performance.
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Reasons against performance enhancing drugs
Some are illegal, unfair competition, health risks.
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Reasons for performance enhancing drugs
Its the persons own decision, want to compete at a new level, drug free sport isnt fair anyway.
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What do receptors and effectors do?
R- Detect stimuli E- Produce a response
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What do sensory neurones do?
Transmit impulses from receptors to CNS
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What do motor neurones do?
Transmit impulses from CNS to effectors
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What do relay neurones do?
Send impulses between motor and sensory neurones.
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What is the hormonal system made of?
Hormones and glands
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Features of nervous communication
electrical impulses, fast response, localised, short lived
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Features of hormonal communication
Chemical signals, travels at speed of blood, widespread response and long lived response
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What makes a membrane polarised?
Difference in voltage between inside and outside of cell.
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What is the potential difference?
Difference in voltage
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What can change the potential difference?
Change in membrane permeability
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What triggers action potential?
A change in potential difference that reaches the threshold.
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What is a bipolar neurone?
Connect photoreceptors to optic nerve
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What is the optic nerve?
Bundle of nerves that connect the eye to the brain.
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What are the photoreceptors present in the eye?
Rods and cones.
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What is the difference in rods and cones?
Rods show information in black and white, cones show it in colour.
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What pigment is present in rods?
Rhodopsin
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What two chemicals make Rhodopsin?
Retinal and opsin
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What happens to rods when its light?
Light causes rhodopsin to break up, causes sodium ions to close. Sodium builds up outside the cell it becomes hyperpolarised, it stops releasing neurotransmitters, bipolar neurone depolarises and action potential is sent.
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What do photoreceptors convert light into?
Electrical signals
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What happens to rods in the dark?
Sodium flows in and out of the cell, the cell is depolarised so releases neurotransmitters which inhibits the bipolar neurone.
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What is the structure of a motor neurone?
Many short dendrities, one long axon.
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What is the structure of a sensory neurone?
One long dendrite and one short axon.
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What is the structure of a relay neurone?
Many short dendrities and axons.
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What maintains the resting potential of neurones?
Sodium potassium pumps and potassium ion channels
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What happens to keep neurones polarised?
Sodium potassium pumps move sodium ions out but they cant get back in. They also allow potassium in but they can diffuse out. Making the outside of the cell positively charged.
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When do neurones become depolorised?
When they are stimulated.
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What happens in action potential in a stimulated neurone?
Stimulus causes sodium channels to open. They make the inside less negative. If it reaches the threshold more will open. Around 30mV potassium channels open and sodium close going back to its resting state.
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What happens during hyperpolarisation?
Potassium channels are slow to close so the potential is more negative for a while than the resting potential.
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What is the period of recovery called for a neurone?
Refractory period.
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What causes a wave of depolarisation?
Some of the sodium ions diffuse sideways, causing further parts of the neurone to depolarise.
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A bigger stimulus wont create a bigger action potential but..
cause them to fire more quickly
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What is a myelin sheath?
Electrical insulator
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What cell makes a myelin sheath?
Schwann cell
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What are the bare membranes called in myelinated neurones?
Nodes of Ranvier
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What is saltatory conduction?
The cytoplasm depolarising the next node along the myelinated neurones.
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Depolarisation only happens at nodes of ranvier because?
They have sodium channels.
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What is a synapse?
A junction between a neurone and the next cell.
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What is the name given to the gap between a synapse and cell?
Synaptic cleft.
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How do neurotransmitters transmit nerves between neurones?
Action potential causes calcium to diffuse into the synapse, vesicles move the membrane and release neurotransmitters, they then bind to receptors, sodium channels open causing a new action potential.
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What is synaptic divergance?
When one neurone connects to many neurones, so information can be sent all over the body.
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What is synaptic convergance?
When many neurones connect to one neurone so information can be amplified.
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What is a tropism?
Plants growth response to an external stimulus.
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What are plant growth factors?
Chemicals that speed up or slow down plant growth.
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What does IAA do in plants?
Uneven growth as it moves to shaded parts and in roots moves to the underside.
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What are the two types of phytochromes?
Pr- absorbs red light and Pfr- absorbs far red light
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What happens to phytochromes when absorbed to light?
They quickly convert to the one that is needed.
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What does the cerebrum do and where in the brain is it?
Allows you to see think, learn and feel emotions. The front.
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What does the cerebellum do and where is it in the brain?
Co-ordinating balance and movement. It is under the cerebrum at the back.
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What is a CT and what can it do?
It is radiation to show the brains structure.
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What is a MRI and what can it do?
A magnetic field and radio waves to see the brain in more detail.
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What is a fMRI and what can it do?
Like an MRI but shows brain activity.
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What have newborn studies shown?
They are born with many abilities but cant speak suggesting nurturing plays a big role.
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What have animal experiments shown?
Rats in isolation have brain abnormalities suggesting nurturing plays a role in brain development.
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What have twin studies shown?
They have similar IQ scores suggesting intelligence is nature dependant.
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What have brain damage studies shown?
Children can learn to read like others after suffering brain damage, suggesting nurturing is a big role.
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What have cross-cultural studies shown?
Intelligent children have come from a family with money and a high righ diet suggesting intelligence in nuture based.
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What is habituation?
A typed of learned behaviour
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How can neurotransmitters lead to parkinsons?
Lack of dopamine can lead to tremors
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How can neurotransmitters lead to depression?
Low level of serotonin.
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How does L-dopa affect synapses?
It is used to treat parkinsons, it is converted to dopamine by an enzyme dopa-decarboxylase.
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How does MDMA affect synapses?
It increases serotonin levels and therefore gives a mood elevation.
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Benefits of GMO's?
Higher yields, more resistance, more vaccines and plants being produced.
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Risks of GMO's?
Concerns of transmission of genetic material, long term impacts.
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How is a genetically modified plant and animal made?
Bacteria injected with dna that infects plant. DNA injected into the nucleus of a fertilised egg.
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Card 2

Front

What attaches muscle to muscle?

Back

Ligaments

Card 3

Front

What is a flexor and give an example?

Back

Preview of the front of card 3

Card 4

Front

What is an extensor and give an example?

Back

Preview of the front of card 4

Card 5

Front

What term is used for muscles that work together to move a bone?

Back

Preview of the front of card 5
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