Unit 4

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  • Created by: sally
  • Created on: 09-05-13 20:19
Why do plants need energy?
Photosynthesis, active transport, DNA replication, cell division and protein synthesis.
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Why do animals needs energy?
Muscle contraction, active transport, DNA replication, cell division, protein synthesis and maintaining body temperature.
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What is the equation for photosynthesis?
6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy - C6H12O6 + 6CO2
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What is photosynthesis?
The process where energy from light is used to break apart the strong bonds in water to form glucose and oxygen is released.
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What is respiration?
When plants and animals release energy from glucose.
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What is the equation for aerobic respiration?
C6H12O6 + 6O2 - 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
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Energy released from glucose is used to make?
ATP
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What is the structure of ATP?
Base of Adenine, ribose sugar and three phosphate groups.
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What is ATP synthesised from?
ADP and inorganic phosphate.
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What enzyme catalyses the reaction of ADP + Pi into ATP?
ATP synthase
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What happens to ATP when it reaches the cell that needs it?
It is broken down into ADP and Pi, chemical energy is released from the phosphate bond.
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Which enzyme catalyses the reaction of ATP into ADP + Pi?
ATPase.
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What is phosphorylation?
Adding phosphate to a molecule.
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What is photophosphorylation?
Adding phosphate to a molecule using light.
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What is photolysis?
The splitting of a molecule using light.
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What is hydrolysis?
The splitting of a molecule using water.
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What is a redox reaction?
Reactions that involve oxidation and reduction.
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What is meant by if something is 'reduced'?
It has gained electrons and may of gained hydrogen.
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What is meant by if something is 'oxidised'?
It has lost electrons and may have lost a hydrogen.
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What is a coenzyme?
A molecule that aids the function of an enzyme.
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What coenzyme is used in photosynthesis?
NADP
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Describe the structure of a chloroplast.
Small, flattened organelles. They have a double membrane called the chloroplast envelope. They contain photosynthetic pigments and found in the thylakoid membrane. They have two photosystems used to capture light.
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Which wavelength is best for photosystem I?
700nm
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Which wavelength is best for photosystem II?
680nm
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What photosynthetic pigments are found in chloroplast?
chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and carotene.
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What is an ecosystem?
All the organisms living in a particular area and all the abiotic factors.
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What is the main route energy enters an ecosystem?
Photosynthesis
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What is gross productivity?
The available energy which is taken in by an organism.
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What is net productivity?
The amount of energy that's available for the next trophic level.
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How do you calculate net productivity?
Gross productivity - respiratory loss
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How do you calculate net primary productivity?
GPP - Plant respiration
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When do you use NPP?
In context with producers.
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What is a habitat?
The place where an organism lives.
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What is population?
All the organisms of one species in a habitat.
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What is a community?
Populations of different species in a habitat.
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What are abiotic factors?
Non-living features of an ecosystem.
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What are biotic factors?
The living features of an ecosystem.
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What is abundance?
The number of individuals of one species in a particular area.
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What is distribution?
Where a species is within in a particular area.
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How is population size affected by abiotic factors?
When they are ideal organisms can grow fast and reproduce successfully. When they aren't ideal they cant grow fast or reproduce as successfully.
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How is population size affected by biotic factors?
Interspecific competition, intraspecific competition, predation.
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What is a niche?
The role a species plays in its habitat.
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What are frame quadrats used for?
To investigate plant populations.
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What are point quadrats used for?
To investigate plant populations.
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What are transects used for?
To investigate the distribution of plant populations.
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How do you measure humidity?
Hygrometer
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What is primary succession?
On land that is newly formed or exposed.
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What is secondary succession?
This happens on land that has been cleared of all plants but where soil remains.
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What is plagioclimax?
Where human activities prevent a natural succession developing.
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What are the pioneer species in primary succession?
grass and lichens.
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What are the pioneer species in secondary succession?
shrubs
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What is the climax community?
The largest and most complex community of plants and animals.
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How can we measure climate change?
Temperature records, dendrochronology, peat bogs.
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What is global warming?
The natural warming of the earth's atmosphere.
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Why do some people disagree whether global warming is caused by human activities?
Some believe it may be caused by natural processes.
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What effects does global warming have on earth?
Rising temperatures, changing rainfall patterns and changing in the seasonal cycles.
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How can we reduce global warming?
Using biofuels, reforestation and green energy such as wind turbines.
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What is evolution?
A change in allele frequency.
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What is a gene pool?
The complete range of alleles in a population.
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What happens in natural selection?
Individuals with better adaptions have a better chance of survival and therefore pass on their genes by reproducing.
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What is specification?
The development of a new species.
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How can phenotype prevent populations successfully breeding?
Mechanical changes - changes in genitalia. Behavioural changes - courtship rituals arent attractive. Seasonal changes - flowering and mating season are at different times.
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What happens in reproductive isolation?
A population is split by a barrier, they will have different climates and different characteristics. Eventually they will have changed so much they wont be able to breed.
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What evidence is there that supports evolution?
DNA evidence, proteomics.
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How do the scientific community validate evidence?
Scientific journals, peer reviews, conferences.
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What does mRNA do?
Carries the genetic code from the DNA into the nucleus where it goes through translation.
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What does tRNA do?
Carries amino acids to the ribosomes.
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How is mRNA modified before translation?
Introns are removed through splicing this takes place in the nucleus. The exons are then joined together in different orders so more than one protein can be made.
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What are exons?
Part of DNA that code for amino acids.
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What is a DNA profile?
A fingerprint of an organisms DNA?
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What is PCR and what is it used for?
It is used to amplify DNA. A reaction of DNA, primers, DNA polymerase and free nuceotides are heated to 95 then cooled at 50 then heated to 72. Two copies are made from one cycle of PCR.
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What is gel electrophoresis and what is it used for?
It is used to seperate DNA. DNA is placed into a well in a slab of gel and covered in a buffer. An electric current is passed through it is then viewed under UV light. DNA fragments are negative and move towards the positive electrode.
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How can DNA profiling be used to help humans?
Identify people in forensic science and determine our genetic relationships.
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How can DNA profiling be used to help animals and plants?
Prevent inbreeding, and identify how closely related individuals are.
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What is a pathogen?
Any organism that causes diseases.
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What is the structure of bacteria?
Single celled, prokaryotic microorganisms. Have a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes but no nucleus.
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What is the structure of a virus?
They are nucleic acids surrounded by proteins, no plasma membrane, no cytoplasm, no ribosomes.
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How does TB develop?
Bacterium infects phagocytes they can lie dormant till tubercules burst. Severe coughing, weakness, inflammation it can spread to other organs and can lead to death.
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How does AIDS develop?
HIV infects and destroys immune system cells. Leads to AIDS. Initial symptoms are minor infections then more serious infections occur these are what kill the patient.
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How can pathogens enter the body?
Through cuts in the skin, digestive system via food/drink, respiratory through inhalation and mucosal surfaces.
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How does gut and skin flora prevent infection?
Covered in harmless microorganisms that compete with pathogens for nutrients and space.
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How does lysozyme prevent infection?
Found in mucosal surfaces that kills bacteria by damaging their cell wall and they then burst.
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What are antigens?
Molecules found on the surface of cells.
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What are the 3 non-specific immune responses?
Inflammation, production of anti-virals, phagocytosis
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What happens in inflammation?
The immune system recognises foreign antigens, it releases molceules which causes vasodilation, increased blood flow brings loads of immune system cells to the site of infection.
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What happens in the production of anti-virals?
When cells are infected by a virus they produce interferons they prevent bacteria replication, activate immune systems cells and promote inflammation.
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What happens in phagocytosis?
A phagocyte recognises the antigen and engulfs the pathogen into a phagocytic vacuole, a lysosome then breaks it down. The phagocyte then presents the pathogens antigens = antigen-presenting cell.
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Phagocytes activate which immune response?
T cells = T helper cells, release substances that activate B cells. T killer cells - attach to antigens to kill a cell. T-memory cells.
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T helper cells activate?
B cells - a white blood cell covered in antibodies it then binds to antigens = antigen - antibody complex.
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Activated B cells divide into?
Plasma cells and B memory cells.
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What do plasma cells do?
Secrete loads of antibodies.
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How do antibodies clear an infection?
Neutralising toxins by bonding to them instead of human cells, prevents pathogens binding to human cells by blocking the receptors.
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Describe the structure of an antigen-antibody complex?
Has a hinge region which allows flexibility, constant regions all binding, disulphide bridges hold the polypeptide chains together. Variable regions make the antigen binding sites.
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What is active immunity?
Immunity that your immune system makes on its own.
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What is passive immunity?
Type of immunity given to you.
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What is natural active immunity?
After catching a disease.
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What is artifical active immunity?
Becoming immune after a vaccine.
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What is natural passive immunity?
Baby receiving antibodies from its mother.
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What is artifical passive immunity?
When you become immune after being injected with antibodies.
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How has HIV evolved to evade the immune system?
It kills the immune system cells that it infects. Antigen mutates constantly and disrupts antigen presenting cells.
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How has Mycobacterium tuberculosis evolved to evade the immune system?
The prevent the lysosome in phagocytes fusing with the vacuole and disrupts antigen producing cells.
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What do B memory cells do in the primary exposure?
Divide into plasma cells and produce the right antibody.
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What do T memory cells do in the primary exposure?
They divide into the correct type of T cell to kill the cell carrying the antigen.
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How do vaccines give you immunity?
They contain antigens that cause your body to produce memory cells without the pathogen causing the disease.
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What are bacteriocidal antibiotoics?
They kill bacteria.
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What are bacteriostatic antibiotics?
They prevent bacteria growing.
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How do antibiotics work?
They inhibit enzymes which make the bonds in bacterial cell walls, they also inhibit protein production by binding to ribosomes.
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How are HAI's transmitted?
Cough, sneeze, equipment and not washing hands.
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What have been introduced to prevent an control HAI's?
Codes of practice
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What is a HAI?
An infection caught by a patient whilst in hospital.
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What is algor mortis?
Body temperature falls to its surroundings.
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What is rigor mortis?
The muscles start to contract and become stiff.
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Why do the muscles in a dead body stiffen?
Lactic acid build up inhibits ATP production, without ATP the bonds in muscle fix and stiffen.
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How much does body temperature drop after death?
1.5-2 degrees an hour.
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How long after death do the muscles start to contract?
4-6 hours.
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What is the succession of organsims on a dead body?
Bateria, flies, beetles.
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What is forensic entomology?
The study of different insects colonising a dead body.
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What happens during the light dependant reaction and where does it take place?
Takes place in the thylakoid membranes. Light energy is used to make ATP and reduced NADP. H2O is oxidised to O2.
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What happens during the light independent reaction and where does it take place?
Takes place in the stroma. ATP and reduced NADP supply the energy and hydrogen to make glucose from CO2.
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What is the light energy used for in the light dependent reaction?
1) Making ATP from ADP and Pi. 2) Making reduced NADP from NADP. 3) Splitting water into protons.
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How are chloroplast adapted for photosynthesis?
The chloroplast envelope keeps reactants close to reaction sites. Thylakoids have a large surface area so as much light as possible is absorbed. ATPase is present to produce plenty of ATP.
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Card 2

Front

Why do animals needs energy?

Back

Muscle contraction, active transport, DNA replication, cell division, protein synthesis and maintaining body temperature.

Card 3

Front

What is the equation for photosynthesis?

Back

Preview of the front of card 3

Card 4

Front

What is photosynthesis?

Back

Preview of the front of card 4

Card 5

Front

What is respiration?

Back

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