UNIT 1 PSYCHOLOGY SOCIAL

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evaluate generalisability of Milgram
volunteer sample =more likely to be obedient, 40 ppts may make anomalies alter it, time locked? no women at first, but after v8 found men=representative
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evaluate reliability of Milgram
replicable (Burger), standard procedures (prods, tape recorded responses from Mr Wallace), Gina Perry says only standard procedures for 1st, improvised rest
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evaluate applications of Milgram
increase obedience in schools etc, might explain My Lai Massacre and why people obeyed Hitler (Adolf Eichmann)
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what happened at the My Lai massacre?
US soldiers in 1968 killed 800 in Vietnamese village, obeying orders from Lt Calley, Lt Calley said he was only following orders from above
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evaluate validity of Milgram
artificial task, lacks ecological validity, Gina Perry says ppts suspected set up but visible distress filmed by Milgram suggest otherwise
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evaluate ethics of Milgram
ppts deceived and gave no informed consent, prods made withdrawing difficult, understanding obedience justifies means
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who proposed Realistic Conflict Theory?
Sherif
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what is the classic study for social psychology?
Sherif
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what is the contemporary study for social psychology?
Burger
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how does RCT say prejudice occurs?
conflict of interest/competition of resources between groups
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how can prejudice and hostility be reduced? (RCT)
superordinate goals
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what are the strengths of RCT?
highly credible research w/ face validity to back it up, superordinate goals can be used to reduce discrimination, stop children arguing
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what are the weaknesses of RCT?
the robbers cave study was carried out on boys so not generalisable to adult/girls, Tajfel and Turner contrast RCT -prejudice=natural, Robbers cave lacks ecological validity
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what does RCT suggest?
there is a real reason for group conflict/prejudice that ignores the irrational side to human nature
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in what year did Milgram do his study?
1963
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what did Milgram tell his ppts the study was about?
memory
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how many ppts were in Milgrams original study?
40
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what were the aims of the original Milgram study?
to find out to what extent people would obey a figure of authority, also create baseline data
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what happened in the Milgram study when the ppts arrived?
"random" assignment of teacher and learner, learner strapped into chair connected to shock generator and given shock every time answers incorrectly to teachers question
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who played the learner in the Milgram study?
Mr Wallace - stooge
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who played the experimenter in the Milgram study
Mr Williams - stooge
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who played the teacher in the Milgram study?
volunteer
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how were the shocks delivered to the learner in the Milgram study?
increasing 15V each time, in reality all were fake
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what was the shock generator labelled from in the original Milgram study?
slight shock to danger shock
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what happened at 150V in the Milgram study?
learner demands to be let out from experiment
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what happened at 270V in the Milgram study?
learner screams
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what happened at 300V in the Milgram study?
learner answers no more questions and makes no more noises
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what are the 4 prods of the Milgram study?
please continue, the experiment requires that you continue, it is absolutely essential that you continue, you have no other choice you must go on
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what did people predict would happen in the Milgram study?
only 4% of people would go to 300V and 1 in 1000 would give highest shock
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what are the results of the Milgram study?
all obedient to 300V, 65% went to 450V
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what factors influence obedience?
urgency, no communication, setting, a sense of agency
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what are the criticisms of Milgram?
volunteers had sense of obligation, deception, possible harmful long term effects, prods stopped withdrawal, poor adequacy of debreif
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how did Milgram justify ppt anxiety?
called it "momentary excitement"
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how did Milgram justify deception in his study?
it was necessary for the experiment
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how did Milgram justify the prods questioning ppt right to withdraw
35% did leave, therefore prods just discourage leaving
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what are strengths of Milgram?
all experiments standardised, qualitative and quantitative data makes it credible and scientific
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what are weaknesses of Milgram?
samples were not representative, volunteers have a vested interest, Gina Perry says ppts did not believe they were in an experiment, lacks ecological validity
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what happened in variation 13a of Milgram?
confederate (writing down times) suggests swapping places and gives shocks, ppt bystander, 69% ob. all 16 protest, 5 try to restrain confed. people more willing to be bystanders
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what happened in variation 10 of Milgram?
destination moved from Yale to run down office in Bridgeport, nothing relates to Yale, drop to 48% ob. (not sig.) ppts did show more doubts and questions
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what happened in variation 13 of Milgram?
Mr Williams called away, 2nd confed. "writing down times" says to increase voltage of shock each wrong answer, 20% ob. -> status of authority figure matters
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what happened in variation 7 of Milgram?
experimenter gives instructions but leaves the room, any challenges experimenter calls up, all prods over phone, some ppts give lower shocks as thought not observed, 22.5% ob. physical presence matters
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what happened in variation 5 of Milgram?
script changed, Mr Wallace has heart condition, at 150V started to complain more about chest pain, more ppts dropped out, those who passed 150V went to 450V, 65% ob. used as baseline for Burger
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what does Milgram say society is?
hierarchial
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how are we taught obedience?
through socialisation
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what is the name for the group of people that teach us social norms?
socialisers
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what are the 2 states we live in
agency and autonomy
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what is the agentic state?
where you do something you wouldnt otherwise do, instructed to you by an authority figure, and blame the authority not yourself for it
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what is the autonomous state?
when you behave as you normally would and take responsibility for all of your own actions
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what is the switch from autonomous state to agentic state called?
agentic shift/ moral strain
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why do we switch to the agentic state?
because someone in a position of power has told us to do something
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what does moral strain do?
give feelings of anxiety and distress
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how does the shift into agency relieve moral strain?
responsibility is displaced to authority figure
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why does moral strain make a person feel anxious?
they consider behaving in a way that contradicts the obedience they have been socialised to show
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in what year did Burger do his study?
2009
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what were the aims of the Burger study?
to see if you can replicate Milgrams study, to investigate personality variables like empathy and locus of control in obedience
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what is the IV of the Burger study?
base condition compared with model refusal condition
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what is the DV of the Burger study?
shocks given
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what is the sample of the Burger study?
70 men and women aged 20-80
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how did Burger recruit his sample?
through adverts in a newspaper and online
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what type of sample did Burger have?
volunteer
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how did Burger reduce his initial sample size down to 70?
screened them dropping those who heard about Milgrams exp, attended 2 or more psych classes, had anxiety issues or drug dependency
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what voltage test shock did Milgram give ppts?
45
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what voltage test shock did Burger give ppts?
15
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what happened at 75V on the Burger study?
learner indicate pain
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what happened at 150V on the Burger study?
learner says he wants experiment to stop
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how far did the Burger experiment go (in shocks)?
150
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what did the experimenter do if the ppts wanted to move past 150V in the Burger study?
end the study
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what variation did Burger also do with the Milgram studies?
model refusal
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what happened in the model refusal condition of Burger?
2nd confed, pretends to be teacher, naive ppt watching, at 90V confed, says "I dont know about this" and refuses to go on, ppt continues, 63.3% do
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how is Burger different to Milgram?
investigate individual differences with a questionnaire looking at empathy and locus of control, 2 step screening process, told ppts 3x can withdraw and exp. =clinical psychologist so can react to stress, only 15V sample, only goes up to 150V
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why did Burger only go up to 150V?
because in the Milgram variation (5) he was copying, all that went past 150V went to 450V
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what were the results of Burger?
70% in baseline went past 150V, 82.5% in Milgram -> not statistically different
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did Burger find empathy to impact obedience?
no
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did Burger find locus of control to impact obedience?
yes - if high, stopped at 150V or earlier
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what are the conclusions of the Burger study?
Milgrams results are still important, model refusal and empathy do not change anything (contradict Milgrams thoughts about empathy)
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evaluate generalisability of Burger
sample of 70 reduces anomalies, both genders and wide age range=v. generalisable, did exclude lots of people from the final sample which may alter results
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evaluate reliability of Burger
replicates Milgram, follows script where needed, filmed it all to give inter rater reliability
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evaluate applications of Burger
can be used to increase obedience in settings like schools, authority figures to wear symbols of authority and justify it with reference to greater good, test locus of control for disobedient?
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evaluate validity of Burger
lacks ecological validity, ppts fully paid in advance so we know that pressure made them obey, not money, all based on assumption to continue all the way after 150V - what if not true?
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evaluate ethics of Burger
2 step screening to screen out ppts who might have a negative reaction to study, told they could withdraw 3 times in writing at any point in study, only 15V sample shock, no time in between end and debriefing, experimenter=clinical psychologist-help
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what did Bickman and Milgram do in 1969?
got 1-15 confeds. to look at 6th floor of building in NY, Milgram filmed ppts that joined in - more people joined in when bigger numbers, but effect levelled off after got v big
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who proposed social impact theory?
Bibb Latane
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what does social impact theory state?
we are influenced by actions of others, (targets and sources), social influence impacted by strength, immediacy and number of sources compared to targets
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what is a source in social impact theory?
the person doing the influencing
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what is a target in social impact theory?
the person being influenced
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what is strength in social impact theory
determined by status, authority or age
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what is immediacy in social impact theory?
determined by proximity between target and source and presence of buffers that could be barriers to distance
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what is number in social impact theory?
how many sources and targets there are in the situation
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what does social impact theory say will happen if number, immediacy and strength increase?
obedience increase - but effect will level off
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what is the divisional effect of social impact theory?
proposed by Latane and Darley in 1970, says number of targets to be impacted on affects impact of source - one person is more likely to obey than a group of people
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what are weaknesses of social impact theory?
oversimplifies human nature, doesnt account for differences in people, a static theory not dynamic (doesnt explain the interaction), limited as cannot predict what would happen if groups equal
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what are strengths of social impact theory?
it can be observed in daily behaviour
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what are strengths of agency theory?
Milgrams ppts showed moral strain, also blame experimenter for behaviour, explains Adolf Eichmann etc and real life situations (face validity) backed up by Hofling
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what are weaknesses of agency theory?
doesnt explain individual differences and free will, hard to pin point agentic shift, Milgram ppts should have relaxed when fully agentic but didnt, doesnt explain disobedience
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when did Asch do his studies?
1950's
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what did Asch study?
conformity
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what did Asch do in his study?
gave a standard line and asked people to say which line was the same length, all but 1=actor, would normally answer correctly until 5/6th round when all gave same wrong answer
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what did Asch find?
75% conformed at least once, 33% conformed about half the time, 25% conformed nearly every time
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evaluate validity of Asch?
possibility of demand characteristics, low ecological validity
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evaluate objectivity of Asch?
high -you can see who conforms and who does not
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evaluate reliability of Asch
high- repeated many times and got similar results
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what strengthens conformity?
if you feel insecure/incompetent, group has 3+ people, group unanimous, admire the group status, no prior commitment or response, group observes behaviour, culture encourage respect
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in what year did Sherif do his study?
1954
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how many previous studies did Sherif do?
2- both failed
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what was the aim of the Sherif study?
to find out what factors cause 2 groups to develop hostile relationships and see how it can be reduced, see if 2 groups can be manipulated into conflict through competition, test RCT
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what was Sherifs sample?
22 boys aged 11
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who gave consent in the Sherif study?
parents
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what did Sherif do to stop the parents visiting?
paid $25 as an incentive not to visit
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how many groups did Sherif put the boys into?
2- equally matched and didnt know about each other
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what is the IV of the Sherif study?
phase of study
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what is the DV of the Sherif study?
boys behaviour and attitude
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how did Sherif keep the boys separate?
arrived on separate busses and kept at separate sites
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how many hours did observers spend with boys each day in Sherif study?
12
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what did the observers do in their time with the boys in the Sherif study?
did not influence decision making
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what was phase 1 of the Sherif study?
ingroup formation
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what was phase 2 of the Sherif study?
friction phase
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what was phase 3 of the Sherif study?
integration phase
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what happened in ingroup formation in the Sherif study?
boys kept separate from each other, encouraged to chose group names, tasks for boys to accomplish (e.g. treasure hunt). discover other group and ask for baseball competition, 2 Eagles left for homesickness, sociometric data about how boys rate friend
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what were the 2 groups of boys called in the Sherif study?
Eagles and Rattlers
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how long did the ingroup formation phase last in the Sherif study?
5-6 days
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how long did the friction phase last in the Sherif study?
4-6 days
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how long did the integration phase last in the Sherif study?
6-7 days
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what happened in the friction phase of the Sherif study?
boys brought into contact with each other in competitions, prizes for winners (trophies and knives), scores rigged to keep tensions high, orchestrated situations boys find frustrating-believed other group caused it, stereotypes recorded about groups
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what happened in the integration phase of the Sherif study?
conflict resolution, aimed to bring groups together, mere contact (shared dinners) didnt work, superordinate goals did work
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what are the results of the Sherif study?
the boys needed little encouragement to be competitive, requested baseball match, us and them language
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how did the boys interact with each other in the Sherif study?
name calling, Eagles burnt Rattlers flag, Rattlers night raid-turning over beds and stole comics, Eagles launched own raid with bats, Rattlers stole Eagles prizes, 2 sides met for fight, 93% friends in own group only
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what did the Sherif study reveal about mere contact?
it did not work - boys had a food fight
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how do we know that the superordinate goals reduced tension in the Sherif study?
the Rattlers shared the $5 they won to buy soft drinks for both camps, at end of friction phase, 6.4% outgroup friendships for Rattlers, 7.7% Eagles. end of integration phase outgroup friendships 36.4% Rattlers and 23.2% Eagles
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what were the conclusions of the Sherif study?
strong ingroup identities initially formed, introduction of competition generates negative outgroup bias, RCT supported, mere contact is ineffective, hierarchies est. quickly
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what is the main finding from the Sherif studies?
intergroup conflict is inevitable with competition but is reduced through superordinate goals
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evaluate generalisability of Sherif
22 is small sample, anomalies? ppts screened for troubled backgrounds, might not apply to girls or adults, "all american" type boys dont represent all, time locked?
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evaluate reliability of Sherif
observers w/ boys for 12 hours of the day (cant see all), quantitative data for comparison between phases, tape recorded conversations and multiple raters=inter rater reliability, some standardised procedures but some not
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evaluate validity of Sherif
many different research methods (observe, tape record, tests), high ecological validity (even fake tasks feel real) no control group, unrealistic features (counsellors not intervening, only when boys ready to fight), Michael Biling
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what did Michael Biling say about the Sherif study in 1976?
the experimenters were a 3rd group of the study with the most power
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evaluate ethics of Sherif?
boys consent but not informed, no debriefing, deception (over lots-water pipe etc), risks and danger, parents gave presumptive consent on boys behalf, withdrawal (2 went home for homesickness), typical summer camp events? no greater harm than normal
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why do people like to be in groups?
being accepted by others gives feelings of belonging, affection and attention
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why do people conform?
avoid feelings of discomfort and ridicule if singled out, fear of embarrassment and rejection from group, need for acceptance and approval of others
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what is the dispositional explanation of obedience?
people with authoritarian personalities are more likely to obey
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what are the 3 key identifiers of a person with an authoritarian personality?
ethnocentrism, obsession with rank and status, respect and submissiveness to authority figure
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what did Middendorp and Meleon find in 1990?
people who are less educated are more likely to be authoritarian
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is an authoritarian person likely to be prejudice?
yes
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what is ethnocentrism
belief that ones own ethnic group is superior to another
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what 3 traits of an authoritarian personality are linked to prejudice?
ethnocentrism, conservatism, anti democratic
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what is conservatism
belief in tradition and social order, with a dislike for change
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what is anti democratic?
views that oppose the fair election of government and majority rule
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what is the difference between prejudice and discrimination?
prejudice is an attitude, discrimination is an action
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what components is prejudice associated with?
affective (emotion), behavioural (actions), cognitive (mind)
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define stereotype
an overgeneralised belief about someone or something typically based on limited information
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define inter group conflict
conflict experienced between different groups
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define intra group conflict
conflict experienced in the same group
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define discrimination
actively excluding an individual or group from things they are entitled to
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define superordinate goals
goals that can only be achieved by co-operation of all group members together
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define social norms
unspoken rules that people conform to, if not conformed to then there is a negative impact
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what is the difference between explicit social norms and implicit social norms
explicit norms are spoken or written rules for behaviour, implicit norms are unspoken and unwritten rules
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define obedience
the act of doing as you are told and following instructions from a person in a position of authority
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define conformity
a change in belief or opinion in order to fit in with a group
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what is an example of an implicit social norm?
look forward in an elevator
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what is an example of an explicit social norm?
school dress code
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define hierarchial
a system of organisation that is ranked from top to bottom
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define socialisation
the process by which we learn the rules and norms of society through socialising agents
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define moral strain
experiencing anxiety because you have been asked to do something that goes against your moral judgement
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define social influence
when a persons behaviour, attitudes and emotions are affected by those of another
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who proposed social identity theory?
Tajfel
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what does social identity theory say?
people need a positive self image and personal identity, being in a group gives social identity, if social identity favourable then positive personal identity (vice versa), people will compare groups->favouritism to ingroup, negative bias to outgroup
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what does social identity theory say all members of an in group will be viewed as
heterogeneous
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what does social identity theory say all members of an out group will be viewed as
homogenous
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what study supports social identity theory?
minimal groups -Bristol School Boys
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what are strengths of social identity theory?
explains friendship groups (all about perception, change perception to reduce prejudice), supported by Tajfel's study, explain discrimination when no competition
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what are weaknesses of social impact theory?
negative application (Nazi), Tajfel study has demand characteristics and lacks ecological validity, there are gaps in the theory (why do people cling to their social identity)
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what is the conformity theory of prejudice?
once norms of prejudice and discrimination have been established in a society, they will be reinforced by conformity, "non conscious ideology" is when prejudice is so accepted in community it becomes an unquestioned norm
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what is scapegoating theory of prejudice?
socially frustrating conditions lead to aggression which needs to be displaced, blame is allocated to a scapegoat (usually minority or outgroup that cannot defend itself), accounts for fluct. in prejudice over time, (Dollard frustration agg. theory)
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what is stereotyping in prejudice?
categorising people into groups based on visible cues, assuming all members of the group share the same characteristics, it is an inbuilt cognitive process where you exaggerate sim. and diff, between groups, often derogatory and lead to discrim.
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what did my experiment look into?
how obedient people are
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what was my research question?
are 6th form students in SGS obedient
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what was the sample in my study?
16 students from SGS (equal girls and boys)
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what sampling technique did I use?
opportunity
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how many closed questions did I use?
4 (three likert scale, 5=most obedient answer, one rating scale)
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what is an example of a closed question in my study?
(likert scale) i always do what I am told to by parents and teachers
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how many open questions did I ask in my study?
1
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what was the open question in my study?
what would you do if you were asked to punish someone for committing a crime that they had not done?
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what were the findings of my study?
mostly balanced ob. max. possible score=25, mean score=12.8, highest score=18, lowest score 7 (5=lowest possible)female mean=14.5, male mean 11.5
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evaluate generalisability of my study?
sample of 16 implies anomalies alter it, 6th form students not generalisable to wider public, mix of boys and girls
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evaluate reliability of my study?
standard questionnaire,
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evaluate reliability of my study?
standard questionnaire, same script for all, 2 raters giving scores
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evaluate validity of my study?
low ecological validity, high internal validity, face validity, demand characteristics?
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evaluate ethics of my study?
informed consent, no deception, debriefed
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what was the key question?
how can social psychology help us understand the causes of ethnic cleansing?
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how does agency theory explain ethnic cleansing?
a person obeys when in agentic state and will ethnic cleanse even if not normal for them, because authority person has responsibility (Adolf Eichmann "I was just following orders")
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how would the Zimbardo experiment explain ethnic cleansing?
where there is pathology of power, people will obey immoral orders, as seen in WW2 when Hitler was in control
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how would social identity theory explain ethnic cleansing?
where there are groups there will always be prejudice, this is more so when the groups have strong contrasting opinions such as the Yazidi-ISIL genocide (contrasting religious views)
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how would realistic conflict theory explain ethnic cleansing?
where there is competition for resources there will be prejudice and conflict, as seen in Myanmar where the Rohingya are competing for equal rights such as health care
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how would social impact theory explain ethnic cleansing?
when there are more people in the cleansing group, they are more likely to obey doing something immoral as they have a greater number, as seen in the Myanmar genocide, where the Rohingya are the minority and are been suspect to attack from big groups
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in what year was the Zimbardo experiment carried out?
1969
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in what year was the Zimbardo study published?
1971
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what was the sample of the Zimbardo study?
24 men, decided to be a guard or a prisoner by flipping a coin (12 in each category)
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how much were the volunteers in the Zimbardo study paid each day?
$15
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what happened to the guards in the Zimbardo study?
they were made to feel special in military style clothing, mirrored glasses and equipment, drew up prison rules
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what happened to the prisoners in the Zimbardo study?
arrested the night before by the police, blindfolded, hosed down, ankle chain, given numbers not names
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what did the prisoners do in the first night of the Zimbardo study?
rebell
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which prisoner was the first to break down in the Zimbardo study?
8612
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how did the guards in the Zimbardo study treat the prisoners?
degrading, made one say he loved another, made one clean the toilets with his hands
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what happened on the 5th day of the Zimbardo study?
Zimbardos gf looked around, she hated it, experiment ended on day 6
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what is the term for the abuse of power demonstrated by the guards in the Zimbardo study?
pathology of power /power without restraint
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evaluate validity of the Zimbardo study?
David Eshelman, a guard, admitted to showing demand characteristics, distress was real, guards had no training and prisoners not actual criminal so low ecological validity
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evaluate reliability of the Zimbardo study?
was not repeated and due to individual aspects it would be hard to do so
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evaluate objectivity of the Zimbardo study?
opinion and interpretation about what they were doing, but some of it was filmed
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in what year did Hofling do his study?
1966
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what was the aim of the Holfing study?
to conduct a realistic study of obedience and see if people knowingly break rules when instructed to by authority
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what proportion of the control group in the Hofling study said they would obey the hospital rules in the scenario given?
31/33
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what happened in the Hofling study?
in public and private hospitals on a night shift, nurses received call from a dr who they know on staff but hadnt met, call followed script, asked to give ASTROTEN to patient, staff psychiatrist nearby to report if did
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what rules would administering ASTROTEN break in the Hofling study?
dose to be given=too much, medication orders must not be given over the phone, medication unathorised
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how did Holfing make sure that no patients would actually be harmed in administering ASTROTEN?
replaced it with placebo drug
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what were the findings of the Hofling study?
all phone calls brief, nurses show little/no resistance, several sought reassurance dr would arrive promptly, 95% started giving medication
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how did the nurses in the Hofling study justify giving medication to patients?
they had similar orders in the past and doctors got cross if not followed
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what are the conclusions of the Hofling study?
people will break rules if ordered to by authority
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evaluate Hofling?
high ecological validity (real life), broke ethical guidelines of deception, possibility of long lasting trauma, time locked? standard script, control group for comparison
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evaluate reliability of Milgram

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replicable (Burger), standard procedures (prods, tape recorded responses from Mr Wallace), Gina Perry says only standard procedures for 1st, improvised rest

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evaluate applications of Milgram

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Preview of the front of card 3

Card 4

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what happened at the My Lai massacre?

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evaluate validity of Milgram

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