The changing nature of the Royal Navy

?
What was the Age of Sail?
A period where naval warfare was dominated by cannon-firing steamships
1 of 304
What were the aims that drove the technological advancement of the Royal Navy?
Decisively destroy Britain's seafaring rivals; then expand trade, diplomacy and exploration
2 of 304
What was the Royal Navy in 1763?
Designed to destroy a similar fleet in pitched battles
3 of 304
What were notable examples of British successes?
The decisive victories against the French at Lagos and Quiberon Bay
4 of 304
How did naval tactics during the Age of Sail differ from those of the medieval period?
The main objective had been to sail alongside ships so that soldiers could board them
5 of 304
What were the new naval tactics?
Sailing ships carried rows of cannons; aimed to sink or disable their enemies
6 of 304
What was broadside?
The simultaneous discharge of guns mounted along on the side of a warship
7 of 304
What sort of ships were victorious during the Age of Sail?
Those that had bigger guns, could fire their guns faster, could manoeuvre during battle to avoid the enemy's broadside
8 of 304
What did success in battle depend upon?
Well-constructed ships that combined speed and powerful guns; sailed by well-drilled crews who were proficient at gunnery and sailing
9 of 304
How did fleets approach the enemy in battle?
In a long line
10 of 304
What were the advantages of this?
Reduced the exposure of vulnerable bows and sterns to enemy fire
11 of 304
What is another advantage of this?
Avoided friendly ships firing on each other; none of their broadsides would be facing each other
12 of 304
What was the final advantage of this?
It improved the speed and effectiveness of signalling by flags between the admiral's ship and the rest of the fleet
13 of 304
What was true of this?
Battles were often indecisive if neither fleet could gain a positional advantage
14 of 304
What were British captains and admirals trained to adopt?
Hyper-aggressive tactics
15 of 304
What was an example of where this was successful?
The 1805 Battle of Trafalgar
16 of 304
What was the main ship involved in pitched battles?
The ship of the line
17 of 304
What was the ship of the line?
A ship that was strong enough to take its place in the line of battle
18 of 304
How would strength be defined?
Speed or firepower
19 of 304
What was used in the Royal Navy to rate ships?
Categories such as first, second, third or fourth rate
20 of 304
What were first rate ships like?
Multiple gun decks and 80-120 cannons; however these were less manoeuvrable
21 of 304
What was the backbone of the fleet?
The third rate ships with between 64 and 80 cannons on two gun decks
22 of 304
What proportion of ships of the line did these make up?
76% of all ships of the line in 1794 and 80% in 1814
23 of 304
What was the most common design?
Stolen from the French design
24 of 304
What happened between 1763 and 1805?
The Royal Navy steadily outpaced its rivals
25 of 304
What was a notable setback?
The American War of Independence
26 of 304
What was Britain's greatest naval success?
The 1805 Battle of Trafalgar
27 of 304
What happened at the Battle of Trafalgar?
The British decisively beat a Franco-Spanish fleet
28 of 304
What were the issues with British ships?
The extra firepower and gun decks were achieved by sacrificing manoeuvrability as well as speed
29 of 304
What issues did this create?
Made them dangerous to sail near the shore; were often unable to catch more lightly armed warships
30 of 304
What were frigates?
Fifth and six rate ships known as frigates
31 of 304
Why were frigates good?
They were smaller and more maneouvrable, and were able to sail closer to the shore
32 of 304
What role did frigates serve?
Searched out enemy shipping
33 of 304
Why were young captains attracted to frigates?
There were fortunes to be made in prize money for a successful frigate
34 of 304
What did Captain Cochrane achieve on the frigate Speedy?
He captured or destroyed a total of 53 French ships over a period of 13 months
35 of 304
What was also true?
Despite the superiority of British shipping, other nations used frigates against British shipping
36 of 304
Between 1777 and 1790, how many frigates did the French build?
The French built 59 fast frigates
37 of 304
How did the Royal Navy finish the Napoleonic Wars?
In 1815 with 214 ships of the line and 792 frigates
38 of 304
How many operational ships of the line did the British have in 1835?
The British had 58 operational ships of the line
39 of 304
What maintained British naval supremacy at this time?
The British Navy retained the ability to rebuild quickly and was able to retain supremacy over the world's oceans
40 of 304
Why else was Britain able to maintain hegemony?
Royal Navy had more advanced ships and was able to produce them more quickly than any other naval power
41 of 304
What culture did this lead to?
The Admiralty did not want to develop ships that would upset this beneficial position
42 of 304
What major issue did this lead to?
Many naval innovations were first developed by rival powers; were quickly adopted by rival powers to prevent their fleet becoming obsolete
43 of 304
What was the Kent in 1794?
An experimental steamship
44 of 304
Where were steamships initially used?
Areas where sailing ships did not have room to navigate using wind
45 of 304
What did this mean was the first success of the Age of Steam?
Opened previously inaccessible inland areas to naval forces
46 of 304
What was it not used to do?
Disrupt the established order of frigates and sailing order of the line
47 of 304
What major invention affected the Age of Steam?
The invention of a more powerful propeller screw propulsion in the late 1830s
48 of 304
Why was steam strategically advantageous to the British?
Steam engines could be used in battle for greater maneuverability; allowed movement in any direction without reliance on the wind
49 of 304
When were the first British and French steam-propelled frigates launched?
They were launched by Britain in 1843 and France in 1845
50 of 304
What did the French realise?
The potential of steam-powered battleships more quickly than the British
51 of 304
What did they launch?
The 90-gun Napoleon in 1850; capable of reaching 14 knots (26 km/hour)
52 of 304
What did this signal for the British?
The end of 35 years of low cost naval supremacy for the British
53 of 304
What did this represent the beginning of?
A naval arms race that would exist between the major powers until the outbreak of the First World War
54 of 304
What did France do during the 1850s?
Poured money into equipping their fleets with steam in the 1850s; built ten new steamships and converted 28
55 of 304
What did Britain do during the 1850s?
Built 18 new battleships and converted 41
56 of 304
What was other evidence of new technology?
The Napoleonic Wars had been won at sea by ships with cannon firing round shot
57 of 304
Why were these used?
These weapons had high trajectories and were used for bombarding towns and fortifications
58 of 304
How did the British respond when the French began to fit their warships with these guns?
The Royal Navy quickly began to do the same
59 of 304
What was true about these guns?
They could easily destroy wooden ships; there was concern about the damage these would do in warfare
60 of 304
How did the British attempt to counter these new weapons?
Iron plates were fitted as armour to new ships
61 of 304
What was the first ironclad ship?
La Gloire in 1859
62 of 304
What did the British bring along in 1861?
HMS Warrior in 1861
63 of 304
What demonstrated the power of ironclads against conventional wooden ships?
Their use in the American Civil War
64 of 304
What followed?
All major navies abandoned the production of unarmoured wooden warships
65 of 304
What had happened by the late 19th century?
These ships became obsolete as steam engines, armour plating and naval guns
66 of 304
What did battleships become as a result?
Bigger, heavier and more reliant on their engines
67 of 304
What was significant about HMS Devastation?
Sails were abandoned with the ship
68 of 304
What were the specifications of this ship?
It was 87 metres long; was armed with two 35 ton guns; protected by hull armour 250-300 mm thick
69 of 304
Why did the rise of steamships make supply ports vital?
They carried tonnes of coal, as such could not undertake lengthy sea voyages
70 of 304
What did this mean?
Without friendly deep-water ports at which to stock up on coal, it would not be possible for the ships to undertake lengthy sea voyages
71 of 304
What did the end of the Age of Sail eliminate?
The main advantage the Royal Navy had - the superior seamanship of the Navy's sailors
72 of 304
What was becoming increasingly true?
The technical superiority of the ship was far more important than the skill of the crew
73 of 304
From the 1870s onwards, what would determine naval strength?
The size and quality of the ships produced, not the number of seamen
74 of 304
What did this development allow?
Nations with a limited maritime power but an advanced industrialised economy
75 of 304
What did Britain have to work hard to maintain?
The two power standard and naval supremacy
76 of 304
Hold on a second, what the hell is the two power standard?
The Royal Navy should be as strong as the next two navies combined
77 of 304
What did the Admiralty argue?
By rapidly expanding the Navy and ensuring a commitment to maintaining naval supremacy was maintained in law, Britain's navy would be so unassailable other powers would be deterred from naval expenditure
78 of 304
What did Britain commit to in the Naval Defence Act 1889?
Ten battleships, 42 cruisers and 18 torpedo gunships by 1893-94
79 of 304
At what cost?
£21.5 million
80 of 304
What did Britain believe?
This would save money in the future by expanding the fleet now
81 of 304
Why were they wrong?
France and Russia increased their joint production to 12 battleships, 2 more than Britain
82 of 304
Who else did this?
Germany and the USA
83 of 304
Who was John Fisher?
Become Lord of the Admiralty in 1904
84 of 304
What did he do?
Introduced a modernisation programme
85 of 304
What did he do strategically?
He immediately scrapped 154 older warships; restructured Britain's fleets around the world so that the largest and most modern ships were centered in Europe
86 of 304
What was his intention?
End the arms race by producing warships that were so technologically advanced no other navy could challenge them
87 of 304
What was HMS Dreadnought?
A ship so advanced it made all other battleships obsolete
88 of 304
How did the other powers react?
Powers like Germany, the USA and Japan started to produce their own dreadnoughts
89 of 304
What was the status of the Royal Navy as the world approached the First World War?
The Royal Navy was still by far the most powerful military force in the world, but it did not enjoy the same global dominance as it had in 1815
90 of 304
Why did the Navy have an association with trade in the 18th century?
Founded upon the Navy's continual need for sailors
91 of 304
What was life like for the average sailor in the Royal Navy?
Notoriously tough; cramped living conditions and harsh discipline
92 of 304
What was pay like?
The same as being a servant and a landowner's home
93 of 304
What did all of this mean?
No-one wanted to join the Navy
94 of 304
What did this lead to?
Impressment
95 of 304
What was impressment?
Forcible recruitment into the Navy; press gangs roamed British ports offering gold, getting sailors drunk or simply kidnapping them
96 of 304
Where did the majority of impressments occur?
At sea where the navy had the power to pull over civilian ships
97 of 304
Why was a large merchant navy encouraged?
The burden of impressment was felt less if the navy drew its manpower from civilian ships
98 of 304
What was the blue water policy?
Navy protected the seas for the merchantmen, as well as capturing foreign merchants during wars
99 of 304
What did this mean?
The seas were safe for British merchants and dangerous for other nations' merchants
100 of 304
How many merchant ships did the Royal Navy capture in the Seven Years' War?
1,165 French merchant ships
101 of 304
What did this do?
Significantly impacted French merchant shipping while helping British merchant shipping
102 of 304
What was then expected of merchant shipping?
It was expected to provide thousands of men to the Navy
103 of 304
What else helped the Navy?
Trade profits to the Exchequer increased; indirectly funding the Navy
104 of 304
How did government policy aid this?
The Navigation Acts of the 1660s, which mandated that trade between Britain and its colonies must be carried on British ships
105 of 304
How did the Royal Navy aid Britain's commercial interests?
Suppressing slavery, forcing unfriendly powers to trade, maintaining a network of naval supply bases
106 of 304
What was the slave trade by the late 18th century?
The slave trade was the biggest and most lucrative trade route for British shipping
107 of 304
How many ships left British ports annually on the long triangular voyage between Europe, West Africa and the West Indies?
150
108 of 304
What was the relationship between slavery and the British government?
The slave economies of the West Indies were an important source of income; the Exchquer needed income to finance wars with France
109 of 304
Why did Britain need money to finance wars with France?
Fleets were dispatched to the West Indies as France and Britain vied for dominance in the region
110 of 304
What was the cost of this?
Britain lost thousands of men to combat and disease
111 of 304
What had supporters of slavery argued about the slave trade?
The slave trade was the "nursery" of the Royal Navy
112 of 304
Why?
Due to the large numbers of sailors recruited to the Royal Navy from sailing ships
113 of 304
What made this argument less persuasive?
Britain was losing thousands of men defending West Indian slave economies
114 of 304
Of men leaving Britain on slaving voyages in 1785, how many returned?
Of the 5,000 men; only 2,329
115 of 304
What began to be undermined?
The perception that the Royal Navy and the slave trade were mutually dependant
116 of 304
What had the Royal Navy become following 1807?
The enemies of the slavers
117 of 304
What was the position of the Royal Navy immediately following abolition?
Few resources could be spared to enforce the new legislation
118 of 304
What was created in 1808?
A new squadron to stop the transatlantic slave trade
119 of 304
What was done?
Two ships were used to patrol 5,000km of West African coastline
120 of 304
What also suggests that the Admiralty did not view the suppression of slavery as being a priority?
In 1821 there were six ships in the squadron, by 1831 this had only risen to seven
121 of 304
What, counterintuitively, actually happened?
The number of slaves being shipped across the Atlantic increased from 80,000 in 1800 to 135,000 in 1830
122 of 304
Why was the West Africa squadron not a desirable posting?
Long periods at sea, no welcoming cities, mosquitoes, disease and constant equatorial heat
123 of 304
What changed after the Napoleonic Wars?
During the Napoleonic Wars, Royal Navy ships could board and seize enemy ships at will; once there was peace in Europe, engagements were strictly regulated
124 of 304
What did the change mean?
Slave ships could operate with impunity by carrying papers and flying the flag of nations that Royal Navy ships were not entitled to seize
125 of 304
What was evidence that these challenges were overcome over time?
Squadron grew to 32 warships in 1847
126 of 304
What did successive foreign secretaries achieve?
Used Britain's strong diplomatic position to create a series of treaties which allowed the Royal Navy to board and seize slaving ships
127 of 304
What restrictions still applied?
The navy could only act if slaves were being carried
128 of 304
What was an example of what this led to?
Spanish slavers Regulo and Rapido threw 150 chained slaves overboard in 1831 while being chased by the Royal Navy
129 of 304
What did abolitionist foreign secretary Lord Palmerston allow?
Royal Navy was allowed to act with impunity against ships from weaker countries like Portugal and Brazil, but regulations had to be followed with American and French ships
130 of 304
What did the Navy begin to use in the 1840s?
Paddle steamers which could follow slaving ships down inaccessible waterways
131 of 304
What did the paddle steamer HMS Hydra achieve?
Captured four slave ships between 1844 and 1846
132 of 304
What did slavers begin to receive?
Small clipper ships, with large sails designed for speed
133 of 304
What were clippers deliberately designed to do?
Break British blockades and outrun British ships of the line
134 of 304
What was the effect of this?
Put the West African squadron at a disadvantage until some were captured
135 of 304
What was a notable example of one of these?
The famous Black Joke, which captured 11 slavers in a single year
136 of 304
Between 1810 and 1860, how many slaves did the Royal Navy free?
Captured and freed about 150,000 slaves
137 of 304
What must be remembered, however?
The Navy was not successful in stopping the slave trade; the freed slaves only represented about 10% of the slaves shipped to North America in this period
138 of 304
What ended the slave trade?
The abolition of slavery in the Americas, effectively eliminating the market for slaves
139 of 304
Where was slavery still active?
Africa's East Coast
140 of 304
What was the Royal Navy able to do in East Africa, however?
Apply pressure on the sultan of Zanzibar to end his lucrative slave market
141 of 304
In the Red Sea and Indian Ocean, what could be said about the decline of slavery?
The reduction in demand for slaves was more important in achieving abolition than efforts to target the trade at sea
142 of 304
What was the most significant source of income for Britain?
The trade route linking China, the East Indies, India and England
143 of 304
What created problems in the Indian Ocean?
Piracy
144 of 304
During the Napoleonic Wars, what damaged British shipping?
French privateers based at Isle de France attacked shipping
145 of 304
How many ships did Robert Surcouf capture in his profitable career?
He captured over 40 prizes, including 16 in a single 1807-1808 expedition
146 of 304
When was Isle de France captured?
1810; the island was renamed Mauritius and became a naval base
147 of 304
What was the threat from Arab pirates?
They continued to threaten shipping from the Red Sea to Bombay
148 of 304
When were the earliest treaties with the Imam of Mocha and the Sultan of Aden?
1802
149 of 304
What happened in 1820?
Mocha was bombarded until the Imam accepted a commercial treaty
150 of 304
What happened to Berbera between 1827 and 1832?
It was blockaded until compensation was obtained for an attack on British shipping
151 of 304
What was true about the Strait of Malacca?
It was a hotbed of piracy; a large fleet of up to 100 pirate ships operated in this area
152 of 304
What were these ships able to do?
Capture even large European merchantmen
153 of 304
What made suppression of piracy in this area become an increasing priority for Britain?
Growing opium sales in China
154 of 304
What did the EIC agree with the Dutch in 1824?
To divide the area and introduce naval patrols
155 of 304
What helped to reduce piracy levels but could not remove them completely?
The introduction of a naval squadron based at Singapore
156 of 304
What had operated out of the Barbary States of Tunis and Tripoli since the 16th century?
Pirates and slavers
157 of 304
What was true about these forces?
They were well armed and organised enough to capture European shipping as well as undertaking coastal raids
158 of 304
How many Europeans are estimated to have been captured between the 16th and 19th centuries?
1-1.25 million
159 of 304
What happened to these prisoners?
They were enslaved or ransomed, the Beys (leaders of the Barbary states) got rich off a 10% share
160 of 304
Why didn't the Beys attack British shipping?
The Royal Navy was strong enough to intimidate the Beys into leaving British shipping alone
161 of 304
What had the Royal Navy done to Tripoli in 1675 and Algiers in 1682?
Royal Navy fleets secured treaties after bombarding these cities
162 of 304
What did France do to Algiers and Tripoli in the 1680s?
Bombarded it three times to secure French shipping
163 of 304
Who were still vulnerable?
Less powerful states without large fleets
164 of 304
What was evidence of this?
The American government paid $1 million in ransom to the Barbary states in 1795
165 of 304
Why had Britain formerly been reliant on the Barbary states?
It sourced supplies from the Barbary states during the wars with France, by 1815 it was the dominant force in the Mediterranean and able to resupply from a peaceful Europe
166 of 304
What did Admiral Pellew secure?
Treaties with the Beys of Tunis, Tripoli and Algiers
167 of 304
What happened to sour the relationship?
200 captured Corsicans, Sardinians and Sicilians were massacred on the Algerian island of Bona
168 of 304
What did Exmouth do in the same year?
Returned with a larger fleet and bombarded Algiers, firing over 50,000 cannonballs and sinking over 40 vessels
169 of 304
How did the Bey of Algiers respond?
Capitulated; paying £80,000 in ransom money and freeing 3,000 slaves
170 of 304
When was piracy eliminated?
1830, when France conquered Algiers
171 of 304
What made this a significant moment in world affairs?
It showed that Britain was willing to use the might of the Royal Navy to protect foreigners under British protection
172 of 304
What did the term Pax Britannica mean?
A Latin term for "British peace"
173 of 304
What was this?
The period 1814 to 1914 where there was reasonable stability in Europe
174 of 304
What could the Seven Years' War be described as?
The world's first truly global conflict
175 of 304
Why did this affect British shipping?
The reliance on ships of the line became problematic in such a long distance conflict
176 of 304
What made these ships ill suited to unknown coastal waters?
The deep keels and long sides of the ships
177 of 304
What was the Scilly Naval Disaster of 1707?
Four warships and 1,550 men were lost due to a navigation error
178 of 304
What did this prove to the British?
The importance of good naval charts and good organisational skills
179 of 304
Between 1803 and 1815, what proportion of ships lost ran aground rather than being hit by enemy gunfire?
223 of the 317 ships of the Royal Navy
180 of 304
What did the Admiralty give high priority to?
Expeditions that focused on mapping and exploration
181 of 304
What was the Admiralty receptive to in 1768?
A proposal by the Royal Society for an expedition to the Pacific
182 of 304
What was the Admiralty interested in?
Laying claim to new lands; Royal Society was interested in the transit of Venus to measure the distance between the earth and the sun
183 of 304
What was Captain James Cook successful in?
Circumnavigating the globe between the years 1768 and 1771
184 of 304
What was the importance of Cook's voyage?
If cleanliness and fresh food were maintained, an expedition could remain at sea for three years and not lose an unacceptable number of men
185 of 304
What did it prove about cartography?
Cook, using a duplicate of Harrison's watch, was able to produce charts of the Pacific Ocean that remained in use until the 20th century
186 of 304
Which new lands did Britain lay claim to as a result of Cook's voyage?
Laid claim to new British lands in Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific
187 of 304
What was Cook's legacy across the empire?
Journeys of exploration became more common, Royal Navy captains were often required to map uncharted waters
188 of 304
What did the Admiralty establish in 1795 that showed the growing importance of exploration?
The Hydrographic Office, which aimed to collate reliable charts
189 of 304
What did the Hydrographic Office particularly focus on?
Unfamiliar waters where the Royal Navy was beginning to operate
190 of 304
What was the British Navy's main focus from 1763 to 1815?
The destruction of France and its allies
191 of 304
What did the British do during the wars with France?
Seized remote and unimportant ports around the world
192 of 304
What did these become after the defeat of France?
The Navy seized the most important ones as bases to act against French aggression
193 of 304
What was also true following 1815?
The Navy reduced in size and naval expenditure fell
194 of 304
During this period, what characterised the government's approach to empire?
Promotion of free trade and limited intervention characterised the government's approach to the empire
195 of 304
What became the Navy's main role in the absence of European rivals?
Ensuring that the world's sea lanes were secure for British merchant shipping
196 of 304
What meant that the supremacy of the Navy was no longer guaranteed?
The growth of European powers and technological advances
197 of 304
What did politicians and colonial officials link to Britain's dominant position in world affairs?
The control of key territories and a large navy
198 of 304
What had formerly been Britain's key motivations for acquiring new territories?
Cost and profit
199 of 304
What replaced them?
Extending British naval power across the globe; obtaining strategic advantages against Britain's rivals
200 of 304
Why was control of Gibraltar vital?
The Anglo-French power struggle was its height; port was a point where British ships could enter the Mediterranean; separated French Atlantic and Mediterranean coastlines
201 of 304
What did the last point mean for Britain?
Britain created a major obstacle for France in moving their warships between their main ports
202 of 304
What was the other port that aided with these objectives?
Minorca; which helped British ships in blockading the port of Toulon
203 of 304
How did Britain end up in possession of Gibraltar?
Captured in 1704 from Spain during the War of Spanish Succession
204 of 304
How had Britain ended up in possession of Minorca?
Claimed this in 1708 during the same war
205 of 304
When did Spain formally cede these territories?
1713; to secure Britain's withdrawal from the war
206 of 304
What was the issue?
The territories were precariously held; France held Minorca during the Seven Years' War; Spain had tried to recapture Minorca for a period during the Seven Years' War
207 of 304
What can be used to demonstrate the importance with which Britain viewed Gibraltar and Minorca?
The execution of Admiral Byng in 1757 when he decided not to attack the French fleet at Minorca
208 of 304
What remained a key priority for the French and the Spanish?
Recovering territory from Britain
209 of 304
What provided an ideal opportunity?
The American War of Independence
210 of 304
Why was the Royal Navy in a bad position?
Funding for the Royal Navy had been progressively cut; many of its ships of the line were rotting and poorly built
211 of 304
What was true in 1778?
It was rapidly rebuilding, yet its forces were spread around the world
212 of 304
How did the French fleet manage to get through the Strait of Gibraltar?
Slipped through before war was declared
213 of 304
Why did this fatally undermine the British position in North America?
Having a fleet at Brest and supported by a growing number of American privateers; the French could now meet British naval strength in the Atlantic
214 of 304
What deteriorated Britain's position even further?
France secured Spain's entry into the war in return for supporting the Spanish reconquest of Minorca and Gibraltar under the Treaty of Aranjuez in 1779
215 of 304
How many ships of the line did France and Spain have in 1779 compared to the Royal Navy?
F & S: 121 ships of the line; RN: 90
216 of 304
What did the Dutch joining the coalition mean?
They now had 137 ships to Britain's 94; Britain was outgunned around the world, including the English Channel
217 of 304
What seemed inevitable?
Britain would lose control of Minorca and Gibraltar, shutting the Navy out of the Mediterranean
218 of 304
What happened to Gibraltar in 1779?
Blockaded by sea and surrounded by land in 1779, leading to a food shortage among the garrison
219 of 304
How did Britain view supplying Gibraltar?
They viewed it as a priority, sending supply ships supported by warships in 1780, 1781 and 1782
220 of 304
Why were the blockading Spanish fleet unable to prevent its resupply?
The poor sailing of its inexperienced crews and adverse winds blowing them out of position
221 of 304
Why did General Murray surrender his garrison in February 1782?
The British garrison barricaded itself within the fortress of St Philip's Castle as soon as the Franco-Spanish fleet landed; lack of fresh food led to scurvy
222 of 304
In Gibraltar, why were the British able to hold out?
There were enough gardens behind British lines to prevent fatalities from scurvy; although the disease broke out multiple times
223 of 304
What did the French and Spanish do?
Mounted a major assault on Gibraltar; with over 5,000 men on "floating batteries" supported by 18 ships of the line
224 of 304
How long was the garrison able to hold out for?
Until the end of 1783
225 of 304
What does this show?
The importance of such a strategically placed port for the Royal Navy
226 of 304
What was the importance of Gibraltar between 1792 and 1815?
Provided a vital staging post for British fleets in the Mediterranean, for example by resupplying Nelson's fleet before Trafalgar
227 of 304
Who did Ceylon originally belong to?
The Dutch
228 of 304
How did they acquire it?
After multiple wars with the Portuguese, the French and the Kingdom of Kandy
229 of 304
Why was Ceylon so important?
With its trading ports of Trincomalee and Colombo, it was one of the only sources of cinnamon in the world
230 of 304
What had the British East India Company been doing?
Trying to cultivate it in India from 1767, but Ceylon remained the main producer until the end of the 18th century
231 of 304
What happened in 1794?
The Dutch royal family were pressured into ordering Dutch colonies to surrender to British forces for "protection"
232 of 304
What happened next?
A ship of the line, HMS Suffolk, was dispatched with a frigate to capture Ceylon
233 of 304
What had happened in the Netherlands which left the Dutch governor in a difficult position?
The French set up a puppet government in the Netherlands
234 of 304
What happened next?
The Dutch settlements surrendered and a British governor was installed; commercial aspects of the colony were left to the British East India Company
235 of 304
What did the capture of Ceylon yield?
Around £300,000 of money in goods, as well as the acquisition of the cinnamon plantations, making this a profitable venture
236 of 304
What demonstrated the importance of Ceylon to the British?
It was retained in the 1802 Treaty of Amiens, unlike other Dutch colonies
237 of 304
What did the Kingdom of Kandy hope for?
The British would cede some of the coastline to them to conduct overseas trade, didn't happen, warfare broke out
238 of 304
What did the British think?
British gov't had no appetite for a war in a distant colony, instructed its governors to make peace with Kandy without conceding any territory.
239 of 304
What did Britain instruct its governors to do?
Make peace with Kandy without conceding any coastal territory
240 of 304
Who was Governor Brownrigg?
An ex-soldier with "imperial ambitions"; supported a group of nobles against the king in 1815
241 of 304
What did Brownrigg impose?
The Kandyan Convention
242 of 304
What did this do?
Kandy became a self-governing protectorate required to pay a tribute to the British coastal colony
243 of 304
What happened in 1817-18?
There was a rebellion against this arrangement; brutally suppressed by Brownrigg who authorised the seizure of land and burning of villages
244 of 304
What followed this?
The whole of Ceylon was annexed as a British crown colony; with successive governors concentrating on establishing a road and rail network
245 of 304
What was the economic significance of the Dutch colony of Cape Town?
None, except it was a stopping point between Europe and the East Indies
246 of 304
Why was this position strategically valuable?
A naval fleet could prevent enemy shipping from sailing between the Indian and Atlantic Oceans, a major trade route
247 of 304
What had the British attempted to do during the American War of Independence?
In 1781 sought to take the colony, but were prevented from doing so by the French who had fortified it
248 of 304
Why did the British then take this colony in 1795?
The Royal Navy were in the ascendancy, so seized strategic colonies that these nations couldn't hold
249 of 304
What exactly happened in Cape Town?
Soon after France had conquered the Netherlands, a British fleet under Sir George Elphinstone demanded the colony surrender itself for "safekeeping"
250 of 304
When was Cape Town returned to the Dutch?
Peace of Amiens 1802, when it was returned to the Dutch
251 of 304
Why did Britain re-take Cape Town?
To prevent French troops landing there
252 of 304
Why did the British intervene in Malta?
Had been taken by Napoleon in 1798, rebelled against the French and asked the British for help
253 of 304
What was significant about Malta?
The British did not initially regard the island as being strategically significant
254 of 304
What did Britain agree to do in 1802?
Leave Malta until war recommenced in 1803
255 of 304
By 1815, what meant that Malta was sufficiently useful to be retained?
Its deep water port and welcoming local population meant that it was sufficiently important to be retained
256 of 304
What meant that Malta became a major naval base?
The opening of the Suez Canal, which placed it on Britain's main seaway to India
257 of 304
What were the Falkland Islands used for from 1766 until 1828?
They were used by South Atlantic sealing ships
258 of 304
What happened in 1828?
The ex-Spanish colonies of Latin America (the United Provinces) authorised a European merchant named Luis Vernet to found a colony there in 1828
259 of 304
Why was Vernet's colony not a success?
The only valuable resource on the island was its sealing colonies, these were rapidly being depleted by British and American sealers
260 of 304
What did Vernet do that Britain viewed as a threat?
Confiscated three American sealing ships in 1831, taking their captains for trial in Buenos Aires
261 of 304
How did Britain reassert its dominance over the Falklands?
Sent a single ship to reassert British sovereignty
262 of 304
Why had Aden been significant before now?
It had been an important trading entrepot during the Middle Ages, bringing spices from India to the markets of Egypt and Arabia
263 of 304
When did British interests in Aden begin?
1798, with Napoleon's invasion of Egypt, a British fleet docked for several months
264 of 304
Why did a small number of government ministers think that a British base in the area was necessary?
To prevent a French advance through Egypt or a Russian expansion through Persia
265 of 304
What did Sir Robert Graves think?
India could only be protected by seizing "places of strength" to protect the Indian Ocean
266 of 304
What led to Aden's growing relevance?
A steamship route to Suez would help to secure British interests in the region
267 of 304
What did the government agree to do?
Pay half the costs for six voyages per year and the EIC board approved the purchase of two steamers in 1837
268 of 304
What did the EIC begin to do in 1829?
Search the Arabian coast for a coaling station
269 of 304
Yet what did Lord Auckland say?
Any East India Company involvement should be peaceful and negotiated with local rulers
270 of 304
What did Stafford Haines suggest to Grant?
Aden should be occupied on the basis that the sultan was little better than a pirate
271 of 304
What did the sultan's forces do?
Plundered the merchantman Duria Dowlat after it ran aground
272 of 304
What arguably led to this decision?
A sense of racial and cultural superiority; yet also a desire to make examples of those who challenged British dominance
273 of 304
Which probably bears greater urgency?
The latter, as there were many rival powers growing at this time
274 of 304
What did Haines' mandate say?
Secure satisfaction for the Duria Dowlat and to negotiate the use of a coal depot
275 of 304
What did he demand in negotiations with the sultan?
Full British occupation of the port
276 of 304
What did Haines use to claim that a treaty had been agreed?
A letter from the sultan of dubious merit
277 of 304
What was the reaction to Grant's proposals?
Lord Auckland was reluctant to fight a war for a port with no commercial significance, Grant's arguments were more persuasive in London
278 of 304
What did Farish (Grant's deputy) do in 1838?
Sent two frigates and 700 men to Aden
279 of 304
What was significant about this?
He did this without the approval of the government in London; but did have support from Hobhouse in private letters
280 of 304
What were the EIC forced to do?
Presented with a fait accompli, had to accept their new territory
281 of 304
What was Haines left with?
A remote port which was valued neither by the government nor by the EIC
282 of 304
What did Aden not become?
A major crossroads of trade routes
283 of 304
What did Haines do?
Ran up a deficit of £28,000 before being recalled to Bombay and tried for fraud and embezzlement in 1854
284 of 304
What ultimately made Aden a boom town?
The opening of the Suez Canal
285 of 304
What was significant about the seizure of Aden?
Its seizure was the logical extension of the new imperial thought
286 of 304
What was this?
A new way of thinking, whereby the seizure of territory was justified in order to protect existing territory rather than to seek additional profit
287 of 304
By the 1870s, what had become mainstream in the Conservative Party?
Palmerston's view of imperialism: which asserted British interests and values
288 of 304
Who characterised this new imperial thought?
Prime Ministers like Disraeli and Lord Salisbury, who supported both increased naval expansion and territorial expansion
289 of 304
Why was Russia considered the primary threat to Britain?
It was out of reach of the Royal Navy and expanding rapidly into Central Asia with the conquest of Tashkent (1865), Bukhara (1868)
290 of 304
What was the Liberal Party under Gladstone committed to?
Less government expenditure and limited overseas intervention
291 of 304
How did Disraeli extend Britain's interests overseas?
Purchased shares in the Suez Canal in 1875, which was widely popular with the public
292 of 304
How did Disraeli aim to limit Russian expansion?
Support powers bordering Russia, including Afghanistan in the east and the bankrupt Ottoman Empire in the west
293 of 304
Why was Turkish defeat in the Russo-Turkish War dangerous to British interests?
It would give Russia open access to the Mediterranean, as well as the ability to close the Black Sea to British shipping
294 of 304
What did Disraeli persuade Parliament to do?
Approve £6 million for the navy and army for war
295 of 304
What happened in 1878?
The Ottomans surrendered to the Russians, signing a peace treaty which ceded the Balkans to Russia
296 of 304
Why did Disraeli secure Cyprus?
So that Britain could monitor Russian expansion in the Mediterranean
297 of 304
What else did the island provide?
Another link in the chain of British ports on the route to India and a base from which the British could intervene in Egypt if necessary to protect the Suez
298 of 304
What was technically the legal position of Cyprus?
Leased to Britain by the Ottomans; yet in reality Britain held control
299 of 304
What did the acquisition of Cyprus represent?
A change in Britain's imperial policy from liberal economics to acquiring colonies simply to constrain the territorial ambitions of other powers
300 of 304
What did Disraeli follow this with?
The annexation of the Transvaal in 1877; the invasion of Afghanistan in 1878 and the conquest of Zululand in 1879
301 of 304
What left Gladstone (Disraeli's successor) vulnerable to criticism?
At a time when most European powers were seeking to expand, Disraeli scaled back British intervention
302 of 304
What did Lord Salisbury do?
Expanded British territorial influence, most notably in Africa
303 of 304
What had occurred by 1889?
Huge spending increases on the Royal Navy had become common as the Conservative Party capitalised on the popularity of expansionist imperial policy
304 of 304

Other cards in this set

Card 2

Front

What were the aims that drove the technological advancement of the Royal Navy?

Back

Decisively destroy Britain's seafaring rivals; then expand trade, diplomacy and exploration

Card 3

Front

What was the Royal Navy in 1763?

Back

Preview of the front of card 3

Card 4

Front

What were notable examples of British successes?

Back

Preview of the front of card 4

Card 5

Front

How did naval tactics during the Age of Sail differ from those of the medieval period?

Back

Preview of the front of card 5
View more cards

Comments

No comments have yet been made

Similar History resources:

See all History resources »See all Modern Britain from 1750 resources »