Social Influence

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Herbert Kelman
1958 - Suggested that there are 3 ways people conform to the opinion of a majority.
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Morton Deutsch and Harold Gerard
1955 - Developed 2-process theory arguing 2 main reasons people conform.
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Elliot Aronson
2011 - Conformity is a change in a person's behaviour or opinions as a result of real or imagined pressure from a person or group of people.
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Schultz et al. - Support ISI
2008 - SUPPORT ISI - Change behaviour of hotel guests by using printed messages encouraging them to save energy. Messages suggesting other guests using fewer towels most successful.
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Lucas et al. - Support ISI
2006 - SUPPORT ISI - Students to answer math questions; easy or mroe difficult. Greater conformity to incorrect when harder question. Most true for students who rated poor ability.
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McGhee and Teevan- Individual Differences NSI
1968 - INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES NSI - Students high in need of affiliation were more likely to conform.
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Asch - Individual Differences ISI
1955 - INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES ISI - Students less conformist, 28%, than other participants, 37%.
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Perrin and Spencer - Indivudal Differences NSI
1980 - INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES NSI - Conducted study involving science and engineering students and found very little conformity.
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Asch - Research Support NSI
1951 - RESEARCH SUPPORT NSI - Many went along with clearly wrong answer, felt self-conscious giving right and afraid of diaspproval. Asked to write down answers instead of say out loud, fell to 12.5%.
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Solomon Asch
1951, 1955 - Asked which of 3 lines matched standard. 123 American male undergraduates. Each naive P tested in group of 6-8 confederates. Each P had 18 trials and on 12, confederates gave wrong answer.
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Asch's Findings
Naive gave wrong answer 36.8% of time, 25% not confrom on any trials, 75% at least once.
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Asch's Variations
Group Size - three confederates, confromity 31.8%, addition of more made no differnce. Unanimity - presence of dissenting confederate, conformity reduced by quarter of when majority unanimous. Task Difficulty.
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Perrin and Spencer - Limitation of Asch
1980 - Engineering more confident about lines, only 1 conformed in 396 trials.
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Fiske - Artifical Situation, Asch
2014 - Asch's groups were not very groupy. Findings do not generalise.
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Neto
1995 - Only men tested by Asch. Women might be more conformist, more concerned about social relationships.
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Bond and Smith
1996 - US, individualist culture and people are more concerned about themsevles rather than social group. Collectivist, like China, social group is more important than individual and may have higher conformity.
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Williams and Sogon - Limitation of Asch
1984 - Conformity higher when majority of group were friends than when strangers.
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Philip Zimbardo
Late 1960s - Do prison guards behave brutally because they have sadistic personalities, or is the situation that creates such behaviour.
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Haney et al
1973 - Zimbardo set up a mock prison in Stanford University psychology department basement.
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Philip Zimbardo
16 rules to follow, guards worked in shifts 3 at a time. Study stopped after 6 days instrad of 14. Within 2 days, prisoners rebelled against guards. 1 released on first day as showed psychological disturbance. 2 released on 4th day.
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Banuazizi and Mohavedi - Limitation of SPE
1975 - P's were merely play-acting rather than genuinely conforming to a role. Performances based on stereotypes. 90% conversations about prison life.
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Fromm - Limitation of SPE
1973 - Accused Zimbardo of exaggerating power of situation to influence behaviour. Only third behaved in a brutal manner, another third keen on applying rules fairly.
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Zimbardo - Limitation of SPE
2007 - The rest actively tried to help and support the prisoners, sympathising with them, offering them cigarettes and reinstating priviledges.
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Steve Reicher and Alex Haslam - Limitation of SPE
2006 - partial replicaiton of SPE. BBC Prison Study. Researchers used SIT to explain this outcome.
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Tajfel
1981 - Social Identity Theory, SIT, to explain outcome of BBC Prison Study.
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Stanley Milgram
1963 - Question regarding The Holocaust. 40 male P's. Aged 20-50, offered $4.50 for participation. Shock from 15V, 30 levels, to 450V. At 300V no response to question. No response after 315V.
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Milgram Finding's
1963 - None stopped below 300V, 12.5% 5 P's stopped at 300V. 65% continued to 450V. Prior Milgram asked 14 students to make predictions - no more than 3% to 450V. 84% glad to have took part.
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Orne and Holland - Limitation of Milgram
1968 - P's didnt really believe in set-up. They guessed it wasn't real electric shocks.
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Gina Perry - Limitation of Milgram
2013 - Tapes of P's and many expressed doubts about the shocks.
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Sheridan and King - Limitation of Milgram
1972 - Similar study where real shocks given to puppy. 54% male, 100% female delivered what they thought was fatal shock. Milgram reported 70% P's believed shocks genuine.
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Hofling et al. - Suuport Milgram
1966 - Studied nurses on hospital ward, levels of obedience to unjnustified demands by doctors very high, 21 out of 22 obeying.
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Alex Haslam and Steve Reicher - Limitation of Milgram
2012 - Analysed behaviour in study. Every time 4th prod used, P quit.
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Diana Baumrind - Milgram's Ethical Issues
1964 - Very critical of deception.
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Rank and Jacobson - Limitation of Holfing
1977 - Contradict conclusions. Replicated study but altered contrived aspects of orginial procedure that may have maximised obedience. 2 out of 18 nurses obeyed doctor's order before being prevented from carrying it out.
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Milgram - Proximity
In same room, dropped from 65% to 40%. In touch proximity, obedience dropped to further 30%. Telephone, dropped to 20.5%.
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Milgram - Location
Run down building, obedience fell to 47.5%.
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Milgram - Uniform
Experimenter played by normal member of public, obedience dropped to 20%, lowest of variations.
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Bickman - Support Milgram
1974 - 3 conditions, people twice as likely to obey security guard than jacket and tie.
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Miranda et al. - Support Milgram
1981 - Found obedience rate of over 90% amongst Spanish students.
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Smith and Bond - Limitation of Miranda
1998 - Most replications in Western developed societies.
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David Mandel - Criticised Milgram
1998 - Offers excuse or alibi for evil behaviour.
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Milgram - Agentic State
1974 - Agentic shift happens when someone percieves someone else as a figure of authority.
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Blass and Schmitt - Suppport Agentic State
2001 - Video of Milgram's study and asked who is repsonsible for harm to learner.
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Kilham and Mann - Support Legitimacy of Authority
1974 - Replicated Milgram's study in Australia, 16% went to top of voltage scale.
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Mantell - Support Legitimacy of Authority
1971 - German P's, 85% obeyed and went to top of voltage scale in Milgram's study.
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Madel - Limitation of Agentic State
1998 - Described German Police Battalion 101.
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Kelman and Hamilton - Supports Legitimacy of Authority
1989 - My Lai massacre 1968 supports this explanation.
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Adorno et al.
1950 - Investigated causes of obedient perosnality in study of over 2000 middle-class white Americans and their unconscious attitudes.
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Milgram and Alan Elms - Support F-Scale
1966 - Interviews with small sample of fully obedient P's who scored highly on F-Scale.
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Hyman and Sheatsley - Limitation of Milgram and Alan Elms
1954 - Link is merely a correlation.
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Christie and Jahoda - Limitation of Adorno
1954 - Politically biased interpretation of authoritarian personality.
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Greenstein - Limitation of Adorno
1969 - F-Scale as a comedy of methodological errors.
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Julian Rotter
1966 - Proposed LOC.
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Allen and Levine - Support Resistance to Conformity
1971 - Conformity decreased when one dissenter in Asch-type study.
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Gamson et al. - Support Resistance to Obedience
1982 - Higher levels of resistance in study than Milgram.29 out of 33, 88%, rebelled.
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Holland - Support LOC
1967 - Repeated Milgram's baseline study. 37% internals did not continue to highest shock level, only 23% externals did not continue.
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Twenge et al. - Limitation of LOC
2004 - Analsysed American LOC studies, from 1960-2002. 40 year-period. People more resistant and more external.
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Rotter - Limitation of LOC
1982 - LOC only invovled in novel situations.
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Moscovici et al.
1969 - Minority influence. Group of 6, view set of 36 slides. In each group, 2 confederates, consistently said slides green on two-thirds of trials. P's gave same wrong answer on 84.2% of trials, 32% same answer as minority on at least one trial.
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Moscovici et al. Second Group
1969 - Inconsistent minority, conformity to 12.5%. Third group, no confederates, got wrong on just 0.25% of trials.
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Wood et al. Support Consistency
1994 - Meta-Analysis of 100 similar studies and found consistent minorities most influential.
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Martin et al. Support Depth of Thought
2003 - Measured support of P's.
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Zimbardo
2007 - Obedience can be used to create social change through process of gradual commitment.
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Nolan et al. - Support Normative Influences
2008 - Investigated if social influence processes led to reduction in energy consumption in a community. Messages in San Diego, California every week for 1 month.
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Charlan Nemeth - Limitation Minority Influence
1986 - Effects of minority influence likely to be mostly indirect and delayed.
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Diane Mackie - Limitation of Moscovici
1987 - Majority influence may create deeper processing if you do not share their views.
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Bashir et al. - Limitation of Social Change
2013 - Barriers to social change, people resist social change, even if necessary, to avoid stereotypes and being part of a minority.
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Card 2

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Morton Deutsch and Harold Gerard

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1955 - Developed 2-process theory arguing 2 main reasons people conform.

Card 3

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Elliot Aronson

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Card 4

Front

Schultz et al. - Support ISI

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Card 5

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Lucas et al. - Support ISI

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