Science of emotion - references

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traced some expressions to infancy. He proposed that crying is an indication of screaming in infancy, however it is partially inhibited in adults. Treated emotions as discrete entities (anger, fear, disgust). Facial expressions
Darwin (1872)
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o When you meet a bear.... James (1890) emphasised the way in which emotions move us bodily. For example, people may shake, sweat or have an increased heart rate. James argued that the core of an emotion is the pattern of bodily responses
James-Lange (1884)
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emphasised the way in which emotions move us bodily. For example, people may shake, sweat or have an increased heart rate. Argued that the core of an emotion is the pattern of bodily responses
James (1890)
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Emotion is a usually relatively intense and short-lived affective condition which is elicited by a particular target of cause
Frijda (1986)
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Affect is an umbrella term encompassing a broad range of feelings that individuals experience, including feeling states and traits
Watson & Clark (1984)
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For example, a study has been conducted where participants from different cultures are given emotion terms, such as fear and anger, and asked to provide situations where they would experience those emotions in
Boucher & Brandt (1981)
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Comparison of 4 affect induction procedures : § Recall of valenced event + music § Viewing images + music § Guided imagery § Posing face/voice/body o All four were effective but image with music was most generally effective
Zhang et al (2014)
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o Emotions as adaptations:  Facial expressions and body reactions prepare individual for action and serve as communicative signals
e.g. Darwin (1872)
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Emotions as bodily responses:  There is emotion-specific activation in the body  The body changes to support specific actions  The body changes to produce the feeling
e.g. (James-Lange, 1884)
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James-Lange (1884) was critiqued by....The body changes are too non-specific to account for the variety of emotional experiences. The body changes are too slow to account for emotions and can be found without the associated emotion being produced.
Cannon (1927)
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Cannon argued that most of the time we are insensitive to autonomic responses. They are simply too inaccessible or dull to cause emotional experience. For example, it has been found that people are only moderately attuned to their heart rate activity
Roberts & Pennebaker (1995)
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investigated the importance of the limbic system in experiencing emotions. While using positron emission tomography, participants were asked to recall & re-experience incidents where they experienced sadness, happiness, anger & fear. Researchers....
Damasio et al (2000)
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conducted an fMRI study in which participants either looked at unpleasant images (bottom-up) or they reappraised neutral images as unpleasant (top-down). Found....
Ochsner et al (2009)
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Gender differences - conducted an fMRI study in which participants had to stop themselves from feeling distressed in response to unpleasant images • In other words, the participants had to use reappraisal (i.e. think about things differently)
McRae et al (2008)
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Used a pen experiment in two studies to support FFH without cognition: Participants held a pen in their mouth in ways that either inhibited or facilitated the muscles typically associated with smiling without requiring participants to pose in a .....
Strack et al (1988)
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argued that Many of the causes of emotion are interpersonally, institutionally or culturally defined o Emotions serve interpersonal and cultural functions o Emotions are communicative, rather than internal and reactive
Parkinson (1996)
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Emotions "...can result from real, anticipated, imagined or recollected outcomes of social relationships"
Kemper (1978)
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suggest that love in adults depends on 3 systems which are attachment, caregiving for infants by parents & the sexual relating of reproduction. They propose that attachment & caregiving experiences are transferred from infancy to adult relationships
Shaver et al (1988)
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Attachment-related emotions are sensitive to disruptions to the relationship. For example, jealousy is linked to male protection and is triggered by cues of potential threats to the relationship. For example, the mate possibly being ......
Buss (1994)
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According to....on average a bad event has a much greater effect on how people feel than a good event
Baumeister et al (2011)
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showed that positive emotions undo the aftereffects of negative emotions
Fredrickson et al (2000)
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Positivity ratio: 'flourishing' is promoted when positive experiences exceed negative experiences but only up to a point
Fredrickson (2013)
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found strong relations between characteristic patterns of appraisal along emotional dimensions and the experience of emotions. However, they asked participants to describe past emotional experiences.
Smith & Ellsworth (1985)
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examined cognitive appraisals and emotions during an emotional event. They found that the majority of students who felt emotion experienced blends of two or more emotions. Also, it was found that patterns of appraisal characterised.....
Smith & Ellsworth (1987)
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work on appraisal theory - emotions are relational, they connect us to the environment § They are about something
Arnold (1954)
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The prototype approach is used to identify the distinct characteristics of each emotion
e.g. Shaver et al (1987)
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employed an innovative method to determine whether the somatosensory feedback of emotions account for conscious emotional experiences o Some emotions are consistently associated to certain bodily sensation maps. Evidence is concordant across......
Nummenmaa et al (2013)
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argues that the 6 basic emotions (happiness, sadness, fear, surprise, anger, disgust) are each associated with the distinct muscle configurations that produce obvious facial expressions. Facial expressions of emotion tend to be very brief, 1-10 secs
Ekman (1972)
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Regarding pride, ... hypothesised that it is signalled by nonverbal actions that signal the opposite of weakness. Weakness is signalled by postural constriction and reduction of physical size. Therefore, for pride, it is expected that.....
Tracy and Robins (2004)
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showed that disgust expression accompanied by different body position and props is interpreted differently
Aviezer et al (2008)
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proposed that a number of positive emotions have distinct vocal signals. For example, the sound of laughter is considerably different from a sigh of relief, though they both communicate positive emotional states.
Ekman (2003)
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have proposed metaphors that English speakers use to describe emotional experience. For example, emotions as natural forces. People speak of being swept away by their emotions, as if they are waves. Also, emotions can be described as diseases.
Lakoff & Johnson (1980)
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Emotion regulation is "any process directed at modifying or maintaining moods or emotions whose operation depends on monitoring of affective information"
Parkinson & Totterdell (1999)
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described targets&functions of emotion regulation. The emotion-generating systems that are targeted in emotion regulation include attention, knowledge, & bodily responses. The functions of emotion regulation include needs, goals & person-oriented....
Koole (2009)
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written about the relation of self-efficacy to the development of affective self-regulation. Propose that self‐efficacy to regulate positive & negative affect is accompanied by high efficacy to accomplish......
Bandura et al (2003)
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Reappraisal is "changing how we appraise the situation we are in to alter its emotional significance, either by changing how we think about the situation or our capacity to manage the demands it poses"
Gross & Thompson (2007)
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conducted a systematic review of comparisons between conditions asked to regulate using one strategy versus another. For example, comparing the effects of playing scrabble (distraction) versus thinking about what feelings mean (rumination) on mood
Webb et al (2012)
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For example, comparing the effects of playing scrabble (distraction) versus thinking about what feelings mean (rumination) on mood
Donaldson & Lam (2004)
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Bipolar disorder: Manic symptoms include elevated, expansive or irritable mood, inflated self-esteem, decreased sleep need, speech pressure, racing thoughts, distractible, and risk-taking
Mansell & Pedley (2008)
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examined three aspects of poor marital relationships which were frequency and severity of angry arguments, disagreement over child-rearing issues, and periods of silent tension. They found that it was frequency and severity of angry arguments that...
Jenkins and Smith (1991)
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Kindling hypotheis - examined the findings of four interviews over nine years with female twin pairs. It was found that the first episode of depression was frequently caused by a severe life event. However, for further episodes of depression the.....
Kendler et al (2000)
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The same authors then studied genetic factors. It was found the kindling effect was more noticeable for those with low genetic risk. However, those with a high genetic risk frequently experienced a first depression without a severe life event. ......
Kendler et al (2001)
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Sadness and depression appear to activate similar distinctive brain regions
(Mayberg et al., 1999).
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What is disordered? - May be an appraisal/attribution bias e.g. making stable, internal, global attributions for negative events
e.g. Alloy et al (2000)
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What is disordered? - May be due to prolonged negative interpersonal interactions
Hammen (1999)
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Emotions implicated in variety of disorders: non-suicidal self-injury
Muehlenkamp et al (2009)
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Emotions implicated in variety of disorders: - physical health - acute stress (e.g. exams) can decrease immune response (e.g. healing)
Glaser et al (1998)
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Emotion in psychopathology - Excess of emotion, e.g. mania, phobia o Excessive change in emotion, e.g. personality disorder o Mismatch between emotional experience and expression, e.g. schizophrenia o Social emotion deficit, e.g. autism
Kring (2010)
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Transference occurs in various kinds of relationship
(Singer & Singer, 1992)
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These types of transference have been demonstrated by the attachment styles experienced in infancy carrying forward into adulthood
Waters et al (2000).
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Buddhists by contrast cultivate awareness of emotions. Western world has transformed this into mindfulness meditation
Segal et al (2002)
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Effectiveness of psychotherapy - Evidence of effectiveness: - Meta-analysis found an effect size of .85 i.e. those receiving therapy fare better than 85% of those who do not receive therapy
Smith et al (1975)
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Effectiveness of psychotherapy - Evidence of effectiveness: - Effectiveness of psychoanalysis is difficult to assess due to treatment length. Brief psychodynamic therapy has been found to be as effective as CBT
Barkham et al (1996)
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Effectiveness of psychotherapy - Evidence of effectiveness: - Meta-analysis showed CBT more effective than medication for depression
Gloaguen et al (1998)
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depression report: Therapy as effective as drugs in short-term & more so in long-term. Short-term success of CBT is 50% i.e. 50 out of 100 people will have lost psychiatric symptoms that they would not have lost otherwise
Layard (2006)
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Meta-analysis showed that happiness predicts success in life (as measured by relationship satisfaction, work satisfaction and health/longevity)
Lyubomirsky et al (2005)
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It was found that intensity of major league baseball players from baseball register was associated with greater longevity. Those showing a Duchenne Smile were half as likely to die in any year as non-smilers.
Abel & Kruger (2010)
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Income - Meta-analysis found a .17 correlation between income and happiness. More influential when absolute income is low
Myers (2000)
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Income - Absolute income may be less important than how personal income ranks within one's own comparison group, so increasing income won't help unless your rank changes (which is at expense of others' happiness)
Boyce et al (2010)
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Income - Money appears to inhibit savouring positive emotions and experiences, which undermines the positive effect of money on happiness
Guodbach et al (2010)
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Income - However, spending on products that match personality (e.g. openness - cinemas; agreeableness - charity) associated with life satisfaction
Matz et al (2016)
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Little difference in happiness of lottery winners and those who had lost a limb
Brickman et al (1978)
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However, in contrast, ..... found an improvement in well-being 2 years after a medium-sized lottery win
Gardner and Oswald (2006)
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attempts to increase happiness may be unsuccessful because of Hedonic adaptation, individuals are good at adapting to their..... However, major events and psychotherapy can have sustainable effects. Intentional activities can also influence happiness
Sheldon & Lyubomirsky (2007)
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have referred to a ‘psychological immune system’ that protects people from suffering too long or maladaptively from negative events. However, this immune system may also prevent us from experiencing lasting enhancements in subjective well-being.
Gilbert et al (1998)
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experience-sampling study. Sent out signals to people's smartphones at random intervals and asked them what they were doing and to rate their happiness in that moment. The activities where people were the happiest were making love, exercising and....
Killingsworth & Gilbert (2010)
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Card 2

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o When you meet a bear.... James (1890) emphasised the way in which emotions move us bodily. For example, people may shake, sweat or have an increased heart rate. James argued that the core of an emotion is the pattern of bodily responses

Back

James-Lange (1884)

Card 3

Front

emphasised the way in which emotions move us bodily. For example, people may shake, sweat or have an increased heart rate. Argued that the core of an emotion is the pattern of bodily responses

Back

Preview of the front of card 3

Card 4

Front

Emotion is a usually relatively intense and short-lived affective condition which is elicited by a particular target of cause

Back

Preview of the front of card 4

Card 5

Front

Affect is an umbrella term encompassing a broad range of feelings that individuals experience, including feeling states and traits

Back

Preview of the front of card 5
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