Role of religion

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  • Created by: asusre
  • Created on: 17-04-21 02:19
What are exclusive/substantive definitions of religion?
Exclusive/substantive definitions of religion are narrow definitions which focus on the content or substance of religion, and must include a belief in God or the supernatural.
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What study shows a limitation of exclusive/substantive definitions of religion?
Giddens (2013) argues that substantive definitions are too exclusive, as some religions do not reference the supernatural or divine e.g., Buddhism.
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What are inclusive/functional definitions of religion?
Inclusive/functional definitions of religion are broad definitions of religion which focus on the social or psychological functions that religion performs for individuals or society.
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What are the limitations of inclusive/functional definitions?
Inclusive/functional definitions are too inclusive and prevent sociologists from measuring changes in religious belief.
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What study argues that inclusive/functional definitions prevent sociologists from measuring changes in religious belief?
Aldridge (2013) argues that inclusive/functional definitions defines all people, even atheists, as religious and prevents sociologists from assessing whether religion is growing, stable or in decline.
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What study argues that inclusive/functional definitions define too many things as a religion?
Scharf (1970) - it is too easy for something to qualify as a religion, including political beliefs, loyalty to a football team or celebrity.
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What are constructionist definitions of religion?
Constructionist definitions of religion take an interpretivist approach, focusing on how individuals themselves define religion, which does not always involve a belief in God or the supernatural, or perform similar functions for everyone in all societies.
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What study shows that different groups define religions differently?
Aldridge (2013) argues that members of Scientology define it as a religion whereas several governments have denied it legal status as a religion and sought to ban it, which shows that those in power can contest definitions of religion.
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Who are the key functionalist theorists?
Durkheim (1915)
Malinowski (1954)
Parsons (1967)
Bellah (1970)
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What is the key feature of religion for functionalists?
For Durkheim (1915), the key feature of religion was a distinction between the sacred and the profane found in all religions, and collective rituals or practices performed by social groups.
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What are the sacred and the profane?
The sacred is set apart and forbidden, inspires feelings of awe, fear and wonder, and is surrounded by taboos and prohibitions, whilst the profane has no special significance, is ordinary and mundane.
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What are the functions of religion according to Durkheim (1915)?
Religion reinforces a collective conscience and has a cognitive function.
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What is collective conscience?
Collective conscience means shared norms and values which make cooperation between individuals possible.
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How does religion reinforce a collective conscience?
Sacred symbols represent the society's shared norms and values. Regular shared religious rituals worshipping the sacred unite individuals into a single moral community.
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What is the cognitive function of religion?
Religion allows us to ‘reason’ and communicate, and find meanings to ultimate questions e.g., the origin of the world.
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Which group did Durkheim (1915) study?
Durkheim (1915) studied the Arunta clan who performed collective rituals which worshiped totems (totemism). The totem inspires feelings of awe as it represents the collective conscience – Durkheim sees this as them worshipping their society itself.
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What are some criticisms of Durkheim (1915)?
Critics of Durkheim (1915) argue that the evidence on totemism is unsound, the theory only applies to small-scale societies with a single religion, and is outdated.
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Which study argues that totemism is unsound?
Worsley (1956) argues that different clans share the same totems, so they cannot be worshipping their own society, and even if Durkheim is right, totemism does not prove the essence of all other religions.
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Which postmodernist critiques Durkheim?
Mestrovic (2011) argue that Durkheim’s theory cannot be applied to contemporary society, as increasing diversity means that there is no longer a shared value system for religion to reinforce.
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According to Malinowski (1954), what is one positive function of religion?
Religion has psychological functions of helping individuals cope with emotional stress, offering an explanation, solidarity and comfort in order to stop people potentially questioning society, which maintains social stability.
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In what situations does religion help individuals cope with emotional stress?
Religion helps people cope with emotional stress in situations where the outcome is important but uncontrollable and thus uncertain, and in times of life crisis such as birth, marriage and especially death, which can bring disruptive changes.
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Which group did Malinowski (1954) study?
Malinowski (1954) used the Trobriand Islanders as an example. The Trobriand islanders fished in the lagoon, which was safe, and in the ocean, which is more dangerous and uncertain, so they performed ‘canoe magic’ – rituals to ensure a safe and successful
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According to Parsons (1967), what are the positive functions of religion?
Religion legitimates society’s values by sacralising them, which promotes value consensus.
Religion provides a source of meaning, answering ultimate questions about the human condition, which maintains social stability.
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What example does Parsons (1967) give?
Parsons uses the USA as an example. In the USA, Protestantism has sacralised the core American values of individualism, meritocracy and self-discipline.
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According to Bellah (1970), what is one positive function of religion?
Though society is secularising, non-religious social rituals act as a ‘civil religion’ which unifies society by reinforcing the collective conscience.
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What is a civil religion?
A civil religion is a belief system that attaches a sacred meaning to a society itself.
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What example does Bellah (1970) use?
Bellah uses America as an example. America is a multi-faith society which unites all Americans through an overarching civil religion which sacrilises the American way of life. The civil religion is expressed through various rituals, symbols and beliefs, s
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What is a criticism of Bellah (1970)?
Critics using an exclusive/substantive definition of religion would argue that civil religions cannot really be classified as religions, especially if they are not based on the belief in the supernatural.
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What are the criticisms of the functonalist perspective on the role of religion?
Functionalists ignore negative aspects of religion such as oppression of the poor/women, ignore religion as a source of conflict, ignores psychological harm of religion and is less relevant in contemporary multicultural societies.
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Who are the key Marxist theorists?
Marx (1844) and Althusser (1971)
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According to Marx (1844), what are the functions of religion?
Religion legitimises and justifies class inequality, acts as a compensator, and maintains capitalism.
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How does religion legitimise class inequality?
Religion makes the position of the ruling class appear to be divinely ordained. Class inequality is fair and natural because it has been ordained by God, thus disobedience is a sinful direct challenge to god’s authority.
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What are some examples of religion legitimising class inequality?
The Hindu caste system and the divine right of kings legitimise class inequality.
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How does the Hindu caste system legitimise class inequality?
The Hindu caste system is justified through the doctrines of karma and reincarnation (obey the rules of your position now, and in your next life you will be born into a higher caste).
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How does the divine right of kings legitimise class inequality?
The divine right of kings justifies the monarchy as it has been appointed by God, as his representative on Earth, and must be obeyed (divinely ordained).
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How does religion legitimise class inequality according to Althusser (1971)?
Althusser (1971) sees religion as an ideological state apparatus, an institution which spreads ruling class ideology and legitimises class inequality.
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How does religion act as a compensator/ 'the opium of the people'?
Religion dulls the pain of alienation whilst masking its true cause, capitalism. It promises eternal happiness in the afterlife, which helps the working class accept earthly misery and poverty and maintains class inequality.
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Which religions distract the working class with the illusion of life after death?
Christianity, Islam and Judaism offer the escape of heavenly rewards. Hinduism and Buddhism teach that life may be better in later reincarnations.
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What is alienation?
Alienation is the process of losing control over something you created. Workers are alienated under capitalism as they have no control over the means of production, they do not own what they produce and have no freedom to express their true nature as crea
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How does religion prevent revolution?
Religion justifies inequality and distorts reality by distracting attention from capitalism. This creates false class consciousness and helps the working class accept their oppression.
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What is false class consciousness?
False class-consciousness is a distorted view of reality that prevents the working class from challenging capitalism.
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What are some examples of how Christianity creates false consciousness?
“And again I say unto you, it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle, than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of God.” Matthew 19:24 – creates false consciousness by reassuring the poor that their oppressors will be punished in the
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How does the Hindu caste system prevent revolution?
Thos who rebel against the Hindu caste system will be punished by being reincarnated in a lower caste. The fear of this prevents revolution.
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How does the afterlife prevent revolution?
The idea of heaven dulls the pain of exploitation without seeking to end it, so the proletariat accepts oppression in hopes of happiness in the afterlife.
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What are some strengths of the Marxist perspective on the role of religion?
Feminists would agree with Marxists that religion acts as an agent of social control and the strongest religious belief can be found amongst the poor, which shows that religion acts to dull the pain of alienation and exploitation.
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What are some internal critiques of the Marxist perspective on the role of religion?
Neo-Marxists argue that religion does not always create false consciousness, and can also encourage social change
Some concepts are unscientific.
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Which neo-Marxist argues that religion can encourage social change?
Engels (1895) argues that religion has a dual character - although it can inhibit change by disguising inequality, it can also challenge the status quo and encourage social change.
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Which Marxist argues that some Marxist concepts are unscientific?
Althusser (1971) rejects alienation as unscientific and based on a romantic idea that human beings have a ‘true self’. This would make the concept an inadequate basis for a theory of religion. Additionally, concepts such as false consciousness are impossi
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What are some other criticisms on the Marxist view on the role of religion?
Functionalists argue that Marxists ignore religion's positive functions.
Postmodernists argue that people are not controlled by religion any more (pick n mix).
Religion does not necessarily function effectively as an ideology to control the population.
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Which study showed that religion does not function effectively as an agent of social control?
Abercrombie, Hill and Turner (2015) argue that in pre-capitalist society, while Christianity was a major element of ruling-class ideology, it had only limited impact on the peasantry.
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Which feminist theorists think that religion is inherently patriarchal?
Armstrong (1993) and Simone de Beauvoir (1949) see the role of religion as maintaining patriarchy.
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What is the perspective of Armstrong (1993)?
Armstrong (1993) argues that early religions used to centre around women e.g., earth mother goddesses, fertility cults but the rise of monotheistic religions which believe in one single male god with male prophets made religion more male-dominated. She se
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What is the perspective of Simone de Beauvoir (1949)?
Simone de Beauvoir (1949) argues religion deceives women, in the same way it does the proletariat, into thinking they are equal

She argues that the female body portrayed as evil/ women as temptresses in religious scripture.
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Which feminist theorists see religion as a source of feminism?
Woodhead (2002) and El Saadwi (1980) do not see religion as inherently patriarchal.
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What is the perspective of Woodhead (2002)?
Woodhead (2002) argues that there are forms of ‘religious feminism’, where religion can be used to gain freedom and respect and build solidarity between women.
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What example does Woodhead (2002) use to prove that there are forms of religious feminism?
Woodhead (2002) argues that the hijab provides protection and liberation that allows women to enter the public sphere without being condemned as immodest.
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What is the perspective of El Saadwi (1980)?
El Saadwi (1980) argues that religion is not inherently patriarchal, but with the rise of monotheistic religion, men reinterpreted religion in ways that favoured patriarchy and oppressed women.
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What are some criticisms of the view that religion is patriarchal?
Functionalists see patriarchy as natural and thus benefitting women by offering them roles that suit their ‘nature’, difference feminist argue there are religious forms of feminism, women have more freedom of choice in religio and religion is not necessar
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What study highlighted that women have freedom of choice in religion?
Badwi (1994) argues that women now have much choice over their interpretation of their religion e.g., Muslim women in Turkey have the freedom to choose whether to wear a headscarf or not.
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What study questioned the view that religion is a form of social control?
Butler (1990) interviewed young British Muslim women and found that veiling was a source of identity amongst women, showing their cultural and religious roots, rather than a symbol of oppression.
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What study shows a limitation of exclusive/substantive definitions of religion?

Back

Giddens (2013) argues that substantive definitions are too exclusive, as some religions do not reference the supernatural or divine e.g., Buddhism.

Card 3

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What are inclusive/functional definitions of religion?

Back

Preview of the front of card 3

Card 4

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What are the limitations of inclusive/functional definitions?

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Card 5

Front

What study argues that inclusive/functional definitions prevent sociologists from measuring changes in religious belief?

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