Psychopathology

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What is statistical infrequency?
Abnormality is defined as those behaviours that are extremely rare i.e. any behaviour found in very few people would be regarded as abnormal
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What is an example of statistical infrequency?
The age most typical for women to have their first child
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What is deviation from social norms?
Abnormal behaviour is seen as a deviation from unstated rules about how one 'ought' to behave. Anything that violates these rules is considered abnormal
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What is an example of deviation from social norms?
In Southern Europe its common to stand much closer to strangers than in the UK
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What is failure to function adequately?
People are judged on their ability to go about daily life. If they can't do this and are experiencing distress then it is considered a sign of abnormality
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What is an example of failure to function adequately?
Getting out of bed each day, holding down a job, conducting successful relationships
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Name the 6 areas that the DSM assessment of ability to function adequately (WHODAS) includes
Understanding & communicating, Getting around, Self-care, Getting along with people, Life activities and Participation in society
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What is deviation from ideal mental health?
Abnormality is defined in terms of mental health, behaviours that are associated with competence & happiness. Ideal mental health would include a positive attitude towards the self, resistance to stress & accurate perception of reality
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What did Jahoda point out?
That we can define physical illness by looking at the absences of signs of physical health and so we should do the same for mental health.
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What are phobias?
Are a type of anxiety disorder characterised by a marked & persistent fear that is excessive/ unreasonable. Promoted by presence of a specific object or situation e.g. flying, seeing blood
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What are the 3 categories the DSM defines as phobias?
Agoraphobia - trapped in a public place, Social phobia - anxiety related to social situation AND Specific phobia - fear of specific object e.g. spider
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What are the emotional characteristics of phobias?
Exposure to the phobic stimulus nearly always produces rapid anxiety response so fear is marked & persistent
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What are the behavioural characteristics of phobias?
The phobic stimulus is either avoided or responded to with great anxiety e.g. someone with phobia of dogs may cross the road every time they see a dog
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What are the cognitive characteristics of phobias?
A person would recognise the fear is excessive/ unreasonable and are consciously aware the anxiety levels they experience in relation to feared object is overstated
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Behavioural approach to phobias - What is classical conditioning explanation in regards to phobias?
A phobia is acquired through association between neutral stimulus such as white furry rate and a loud noise which results in a new stimulus being learned, as demonstrated by Little Albert
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Why did Watson & Rayner conduct a study?
To demonstrate that emotional responses could be learned through classical conditioning
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Who was the study conducted on?
Subject was 11-month old Albert who at the beginning of the study showed no response to white furry objects
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What did Watson & Rayner create?
A conditioned response to neutral objects, to do this they used a steel bar with a hammer behind Albert's head to startle him. Repeated this 3 times and did the same a week later
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What did Watson & Rayner find?
When they showed Albert the furry rat and other furry white objects he began to cry
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What is operant conditioning explanation in regards to phobias?
Through CC a phobia is acquired but this doesn't explain why individuals continue to feel fearful so next step involves OC which is the change of behaviour due to reward or avoidance
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What did avoidance cause in the case of a phobia?
Reduces fear and is therefore reinforcing
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What did Skinner believe?
The best way to understand behaviour is to look at the cases of action and its consequences. He called his approach OC and studied this by conducting experiments using animals which he placed in a 'Skinner Box'
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What is flooding in regards as a behavioural treatment of phobias?
Is 1 long session where patient experiences phobia at its worst while practising relaxation. Session continues until patient is fully relaxed
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What is an example of flooding?
Person afraid of clowns is placed in a room full of clowns. Therapist encourages patient to use relaxation techniques whilst expose to clowns until eventually their anxiety disappears
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What is the steps of flooding?
To learn relaxation techniques which are applied in one session in presence of most feared situation which usually lasts two/three hours. Person's fear response has a time limit as adrenaline levels naturally decrease a new stimulus-response link
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What is systematic desensitisation in regards as a behavioural treatment of phobias?
A reason phobias may persist is that individuals avoid phobic stimulus and so no opportunity to learn that feared stimulus actually isn't that fearful. Wolpe developed technique where can be introduced to feared stimulus gradually
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What is counterconditioning?
Basis of therapy as patient is taught a new association that runs counter to original association. Patient is taught through classical conditioning to associate phobic stimulus to a new response e.g. relaxation instead of fear
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What is relaxation?
Therapist teaches patient relaxation techniques, which will be achieved by patient focusing on their breathing & taking slow, deep breaths. Progressive muscle relaxation is also used
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What is desensitisation hierarchy?
SD works by gradually introducing person to feared stimulus one step at a time so now as overwhelming. At each stage patient practices relaxation so situation becomes more familiar, less overwhelming & anxiety diminishes
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What is depression?
Is a mood or affective disorder which is a collection of physical, emotional, mental & behaviour experiences that are serve, prolonged & damaging to everyday functioning
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How is the criteria for depression diagnosed?
Using the DSM-V which distinguishes between major depressive and persistent depressive disorder
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What are emotional characteristics of depression?
A formal diagnosis of major depressive disorder requires the presence of at least five symptoms and must include either sadness or loss of interest
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What are behavioural characteristics of depression?
In most patients there is a shift in activity level either reduced or increased
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What are the cognitive characteristics of depression?
Negative emotions related to depression are associated with negative thoughts e.g. negative self-concept as well as guilt, a sense of worthlessness etc
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What did Ellis propose in regards to a cognitive approach to depression?
That the key to mental disorders such as depression lay in irrational beliefs
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What does A refer to in his ABC model?
Refers to activating event e.g. you get fired at work
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What does B refer to in his ABC model?
Is the belief which may be irrational e.g. the company was overstaffed or thinking you were sacked as they've always had it in for you
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What does C refer to in his ABC model?
Is the consequences as rational beliefs lead to healthy emotions whereas irrational beliefs lead to unhealthy emotions
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Where is the source of irrational beliefs?
Lies in masturbatory thinking which is thinking that certain ideas/ assumptions must be true for an individual to be happy
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What are the three most important irrational beliefs identified by Ellis?
1)I must be approved of or accepted by people I find important 2)I must do well or very well, or I'm worthless 3)The world must give me happiness or I will die
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What did Beck believe in regards to depression?
That individuals feel as they do as their thinking is biased towards negative interpretations of the world and they lack a perceived sense of control
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What did Beck think about depressed people with schemas?
Depressed people have acquired a negative schema during childhood and these negative schemas e.g. expecting to fail are activated whenever the person encounters a new situation such as an exam that resembles the original conditions
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What do negative schemas and cognitive biases maintain?
The negative triad and an irrational view of three elements in a person's belief system: The self, The world and The future
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What is cognitive behavioural therapy as a treatment for depression?
The aim of the therapy is to turn these irrational thoughts into rational ones so Ellis extended his ABC model to ABCDEF
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What does DEF stand for?
D=Disputing thoughts and beliefs, E= the effects of disputing and effective attitude on life AND F= the new feelings that are produced
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What is homework in regards to CBT?
Clients are often asked to complete assignments between therapy sessions such as asking a person on a. data when they had been afraid to do so before due to fear of rejection. Such homework is vital in testing irrational beliefs against reality
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What is behavioural activation in regards to CBT?
CBT often involves specific focus on encouraging depressed clients to become active and engage in pleasure activities. This is based on common-sense idea hat being active leads to rewards that act as an antidote to depression
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What is unconditional positive regard in relation to CBT?
Ellis recognised that important part to successful therapy was convincing client of their value as a human as if client feels worthless, they will be less willing to consider changing their beliefs/ behaviours
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What is OCD?
Is an anxiety disorder characterised by intrusive & uncontrollable thoughts coupled with a need to perform specific acts repeatedly
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What are the emotional characteristics of OCD?
Both obsessions and compulsions are a source of considerable anxiety and distress, suffers are aware that their behaviour is excessive which causes feelings of embarrassment
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What are the behavioural characteristics of OCD?
Compulsive behaviours are performed to reduce the anxiety created by obsessions. The are repetitive and unconcealed such as hand washing or checking
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What are the cognitive characteristics of OCD?
Obsessions are recurrent, intrusive thoughts or impulses that are perceived as inappropriate or forbidden
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What is the COMT gene as a biological genetic explanation to OCD?
COMT gene may contribute to OCD as its involved in the production of Catechol-O-methyltransferase. It regulate the production of neurotransmitter dopamine thats been implicated in OCD. One form of the COMT gene has been found more common in OCD patie
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What does Tukel et al say about COMT gene?
That this variation produces lower activity of COMT gene and higher levels of dopamine
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What is the SERT gene as a biological genetic explanation to OCD?
SERT gene affects transport of serotonin, creating lower levels of neurotransmitter. These higher levels are also implicated in OCD.
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What did a study find in relation to SERT gene and OCD?
That a mutation of this gene in two unrelated families where six of seven family members had OCD
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Why might abnormal levels of neurotransmitters be linked to a neural explanation of OCD?
Dopamine levels are thought to be abnormally high in people with OCD. This is based on animal studies which found high doses of drugs that enhance levels of dopamine induce stereotype movements resembling compulsive behaviours of OCD patients
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What about serotonin?
Lower levels of serotonin are associated with OCD. This is based on fact antidepressant drugs which increase serotonin activity have shown to reduce OCD symptoms
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Why might abnormal brain circuits be linked to a neural explanation of OCD?
The caudate nucleus normally suppresses signals from orbitofrontal cortex with sends signals to thalamus about things that are worrying e.g. potential germ hazard.
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What happens when caudate nucleus is damaged?
It fails to suppress minor worry signals and the thalamus is alerted, which in turn sends signals back to OFC acting as a worry circuit
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How can the antidepressant SSRI be used for treating OCD?
Low levels of neurotransmitter serotonin are associated with depression and OCD so drugs to increase levels of serotonin are used with both mental disorders. Low levels are implicated in worry circuit so increasing levels may normalise this circuit
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How is serotonin released?
Into a synapse from one nerve and targets receptor calls on the receiving neuron at receptor sites. After its re-absorbed by initial neuron sending the message - re-absorption is inhibited
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How can the antidepressant tricyclics be used for treating OCD?
Tricyclics block the transporter mechanism that re-absortbs both serotonin & noradrenaline into pre-synaptic cell after firing. More of these neurotransmitters are left in the synapse, prolonging their activity and easing transmission of next impulse
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How can anti-anxiety drugs be used for treating OCD?
Benzodiazepines are commonly used to reduce anxiety as they slow down the activity of the central nervous system by enhancing activity of neurotransmitter GABA. Does this by reacting with special sites on outside of receiving neurons.
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What happens when GABA locks into these receptors?
It opens a channel that increases the flow of chloride ions into the neuron which make it harder for neuron to be stimulated by other neurotransmitters therefore slowing down its activity -making person feel more relaxed
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