Psychopathology

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Define statistical infrequency/statistical deviation when explaining abnormality
Behaviour is abnormal if it falls outside the range that is typical for most people.
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State an example of statistical infrequency/statistical deviation
The normal distribution curve for IQ shows the average as 100. 68% have an IQ range from 85-115. 2% score below 70. Thos who score below 70 are seen as 'abnormal' and are liable to be diagnosed with a intellectual disability disorder.
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Define deviation from social norms when explaining abnormality
This is when someone behaves in a way that is different from how we expect them to behave (the norm). Norms change according to the environment or situation+may be changed or modified over time.
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State an example of deviation from social norms
It is normal to take your clothes off for a shower but in a supermarket or other public setting this is not the norm and may be illegal.
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Define deviation from mental health when explaining abnormality
Jahoda has 6 criteria (anyone without these qualities may be vulnerable). 1)Positive attitudes towards the self. 2)Accurate perception of reality. 3)Integration. 4)Autonomy. 5)Mastery of the environment. 6)Self-actualisation+Personal growth.
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Define 'failure to function adequately' when explaining abnormality
'Not being able to cope'+preventing someone from perusing normal activities+goals. Rosenhan+Seligman identified several features. Abnormal when several of these features are present (severe personal distress, irrational+dangerous, no longer conforms)
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What is the statistical frequency % in UK for phobias
2.6%
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Characteristics of phobias
Emotional (feelings)-Persistent fear, anxiety+panic in presence of feared stimulus. Behavioural (actions)- Avoidance of, freezing in, feared situation. Cognitive (thinking patterns)- Irrational thoughts about the fear stimulus.
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Briefly outline the two process model including classical and operant conditioning
Proposes that phobias are first ACQUIRED through classical condition and then MAINTAINED because of operant conditioning.
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Explain classical conditioning as an explanation of phobias
Individual learns to ASSOCIATE a situation/stimulus with a maladaptive physiological response (they are not under conscious control)+include fear, nausea+pleasure. Assumes that phobias develop as the feared object was associated with past fear.
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What study supports classical conditioning
Watson and Rayner - Little Albert
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Explain operant conditioning as an explanation of phobias
Psychological disorders develop when the individual has been REINFORCED for their maladaptive behaviour+this increases it being repeated. Includes PR (i.e.attention+getting what is wanted). NR (relief from anxiety+humiliation).
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What does the behavioural approach believe when explaining phobias and how do they occur
Suggests that theres no such thing as mental illness+instead sees abnormality as a set of learnt maladaptive behaviours. Abnormal behaviour is learned in the same way as most other behaviour - through rewards+reinforcement.
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What type of phobias are there
Agoraphobia-Fear of being trapped in a public place where its difficult to escape. Social Phobia-Anxiety related to social situations. Specific Phobias-Fear of objects+situations.
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Define social learning as an explanation of phobias
The individual has learnt maladaptive behaviour by OBSERVING and IMITATING role models behaving in that way and, normally, being rewarded for their actions. i.e. child copying a mother fear of spider= mother being PR with attention and NR avoiding.
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Define the behaviour approach when treating phobias
Treatment consists of learning new behaviour through conditioning. 'Counter-conditioning' refers to learning to associate the feared stimulus with a different response, i.e. relaxation.
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Explain systematic desensitisation as a way of treating phobias
Therefore the aim is to 'unlearn' the phobia. So the patient is taught to relax (counter-conditioning). 1) Taught relaxation techniques. 2) Draw up a hierarchy of fear. 3) Gradual exposure. 4) Systematically works through hierarchy until they relax.
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Explain flooding as a way of treating phobias
Exposes the patient to the phobic object or situation, with no gradual exposure+highest fear is involved immediately. Patients anxiety must be decreased+patient will not get NR for their phobic behaviour as their usual escape is blocked.
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Define phobias
A group of mental disorders characterised by high levels of anxiety in response to a particular stimulus or group of stimulus. The anxiety interferes with normal living.
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Define depresion
A mood disorder where an individual feels sad and/or lacks interest in their usual activities.
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What is the statistical frequency % in the UK for depression
2.6 (Actual figure is higher due to co-mobility of other illnesses).
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What are the two types of depression
Major depressive disorder is severe but ST period of depression (may go away for a while then reoccur). Persistent depressive disorder is LT and its seen as chronic (mood is regularly low all the time).
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What type of disorder is depression
Mood disorder
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What type of disorder is phobia
Anxiety
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Characteristics of depression
Emotional (feelings)-sadness, guilt, loss of interest, being snappy (anger). Behavioural (actions)-change of activity level, sleep changes, appetite changes. Cognitive (thinking)- negative thoughts+expectations, memory problems, negative recall bias.
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Describe the cognitive approach to explaining depression
Maladaptive behaviour is caused by faulty+irrational cognitive processes. Depressed people tend to make fundamental errors in logic by distorting what happens to them as negative. Focus on negative aspects of a situation+ignore the positives.
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Explain Beck's Negative Triad for depression
People with depression tend to have more automatic negative thoughts - cognitive triad. 3 negative schemas: of the self, of the world, of the future. Believe that negative events are their own fault. Negative mind set stems from childhood.
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Explain Albert Ellis' ABC Model for depression
Activating events (A) has consequences (C), but these consequences will be affected by beliefs (B) - its irrational beliefs rather than the event that causes depression. As some people make everything negative + have irrational beliefs.
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What is Reactive Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT)
Designed by Ellis+its a form of CBT. Aims to tackle irrational thoughts by turning them into 'rational' ones. Teaches the client to identify, evaluate, dispute+act against their irrational self-defeating beliefs, helping the client to get better.
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What are the 3 main strategies used in Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT)
Disputing (D)-Once client has identified ABC, irrational thoughts are disputed through logical, empirical+pragmatic ways. Effects of disputing+effective attitude to life (E)- more rational thoughts. New feelings are produced (F)- more self-accepting.
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What are 3 other strategies used in Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT)
Behaviour activation-identifying pleasurable activities+overcoming obstacles in carrying them out. Homework assignments-gathering counter evidence to test irrational beliefs against reality. Thought-catching-recording+challenging thoughts+feelings.
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What is the statistical frequency of OCD in the UK, what type of disorder is it and how does it arise.
1.3% and Anxiety disorder. It arises from both obsessions (persistent thoughts) and compulsions (behaviours repeated over).
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Characteristics of OCD
Emotional- obs+coms cause distress, feel embarrassment+shame. Behavioural- performed to reduce anxiety, repetitive+unconcealed. Cognitive- recurrent, intrusive thoughts or impulses perceived as forbidden or inappropriate, uncontrollable.
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What are the basic assumptions of the biological approach to explaining OCD
Genes influence behaviour=psychological characteristics can be inherited. Chemical messengers affect behaviour= NT (brain)+ H (blood). hoBio structures affect behaviour= brain (localisation)+NS. Mental illness has a physical cause=treated the same.
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What is the genetic explanation of OCD
OCD could be inherited from parents via genes. Its polygenic (not caused by one single gene, but several). Researchers have identified candidate genes that make a person vulnerable to developing OCD= SERT + COMT.
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Explain SERT gene which control levels of serotonin neurotransmitter.
People with SERT have lower levels of serotonin as its transported back into the pre-synaptic neurone, serotonin turns off "worry switches" so lack of this increases anxiety.
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Explain COMT gene which controls levels of dopamine neurotransmitter.
One allele of the COMT gene is more commonly found in OCD patients. Produces lower levels of COMT+higher levels of dopamine. Dopamine is a brain reward system: high levels is associated with compulsions, simple repetitive behaviours are rewarding.
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What is the diathesis-stress explanation
SERT gene is also implicated in disorders such as depression and PTS=suggests that it isn't a specific gene causing a specific disorder. The gene may create vulnerability and the disorder is triggered by factors in the individuals environment.
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What evidence supports the genetic explanation for OCD
Ozari et al- found a mutation of the SERT gene in two unrelated families where 6/7 of the family members had OCD. Carey+Gottesman= 87% CR for OCD between MZ twins, 47% between DZ twins. As % of genes shared increases with a sufferer, so does the risk
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Explain the effect of brain structures/circuits in the neural explanation of OCD
Part of the basal ganglia=caudate nucleus shows different amount of activity if damage + thus fails to surprise minor worry signals. The CN job is to filter "worry signals" between the OFC (involved in decision making-impulsises)+thalamus.
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What evidences support the neural explanation for OCD
Comer- OCD patient who shot himself in the head suffered damage to the caudate nucleus (showed decreased in OCD symptoms). Menzies et al-MRI scans showed OCD patients having reduced grey matter in key areas of brain, i.e. OFC, control group=normal.
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What are the basic assumptions of the biological approach to treating OCD
Mental illnesses are caused by a chemical imbalance. Drug therapy is used to restore the chemical balance by interfering with neurotransmitters to increase/decrease activity. Mental illnesses have physical cause = treated same as a physical illness.
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Briefly outline drug therapy for OCD and the two types
Drugs used to treat psychopathology are called psychoactive drugs (alter levels of neurotransmitters in the brain). 1) Anti-Anxiety Drugs (BZ's). 2) Anti-Depressant Drugs (SSRI's).
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Explain Benzodiazepines (BZ's) as an Anti-Anxiety drug
BZ's increase the action of GABA. GABA is the body's natural anxiety relief. BZ's slows down the firing of certain neurons in the brain. This has a calming effect of the patient (anxiety caused by obsessions is reduced).
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Explain SSRI's as an Anti-Depressant drug
SSRI's increase serotonin in the brain by preventing the re-absorbption of serotonin. This increases its level in the synapse+is likely to bind to receptors. This normalises the activity of the serotonin pathways and decreases depressed emotions.
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Card 2

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State an example of statistical infrequency/statistical deviation

Back

The normal distribution curve for IQ shows the average as 100. 68% have an IQ range from 85-115. 2% score below 70. Thos who score below 70 are seen as 'abnormal' and are liable to be diagnosed with a intellectual disability disorder.

Card 3

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Define deviation from social norms when explaining abnormality

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Card 4

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State an example of deviation from social norms

Back

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Card 5

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Define deviation from mental health when explaining abnormality

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