Psychology (Memory)

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STM
Limited capacity memory store, coded acoustically, 5-9 item capacity, 18-30 second duration
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LTM
Permanent memory store, coded mainly semantically, unlimited capacity, can store memories for up to a lifetime.
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Baddeley
1966, 4 groups of words- acoustically similar/dissimilar, or semantically similar/dissimilar. Participants had problems recalling acoustically similar words immediately, and problems recalling semantically similar after 20 min interval.
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Baddeley Evaluation
Lacks ecological validity / no control over participant variables / disregards other types of coding and other types of LTM/
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Jacobs
Digit span experiment. 4 words and then recall, 5 words and then recall, and so on. Mean span for digits 9.3 items and 7.3 for letters.
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Jacobs Evaluation
1887, Conducted a long time ago and so potential lack of control of variables/ supporting evidence increases validity.
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Miller
People remember things in chunks of 7. Chunking can aid this and help us remember things easier in our STM.
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Miller Evaluation
Results reliable / artificial.
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Bahrick
A test of LTM using 392 participants recalling by free recall and photo recognition of students in their class. After 15 yrs of graduating, free recall was 60% and photo recognition was 90% accurate. After 48 yrs, 30% for free recall, 70% for photo.
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Bahrick Evaluation
Higher external validity because meaningful memories/ confounding variables like if participants have looked at their yearbooks since.
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Peterson and Peterson
Participants asked to recall 3 random consonants after counting back in threes. After 3 seconds participants could recall 80%, after 18 seconds, 10%. This is called an 'interference task'.
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Peterson and Peterson Evaluation
Lacks in external validity because the stimulus material is artificial.
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Multi-Store Model
Three components, Sensory register, Short-Term, Long-Term. Pay attention to sensory memory and it transfers to STM, rehearse STM and you can transfer it to LTM.
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Multi-Store Model Evaluation
Supporting evidence demonstrate how STM and LTM are separately functioning components/ STM is not a unitary store/ More than one type of rehearsal/ More than one type of LTM/ Artificial materials used in studies.
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Episodic Long Term Memory
Our ability to recall events. They are often 'time-stamped' so we remember when they took place. They include several elements like people, places, objects, behaviours.
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Semantic Long Term Memory
Our knowledge or general shared facts about the world. They're not time-stamped because they're not personal to the individual like episodic memories.
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Procedural Long Term Memory
Our actions and skills that we can recall without conscious awareness or effort. For example, driving.
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Long Term Memory Evaluation
Case study of Clive Wearing showed a damage to episodic but an intact procedural and semantic/ Neuroimaging evidence shows different locations on PET scans/ Real life application/ Problems with case studies/ Debate of two or three stores.
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The Working Memory Model
An explanation of how STM functions including all its individual components.
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Central Executive
Attention process that monitors incoming data, makes decisions, allocates tasks to other components. There's a lack of clarity over the central executive because its function isn't really explained.
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Phonological loop
Auditory information preserves the order in which acoustic information arrives. It is subdivided into the phonological store: storing the words you hear, and the articulatory process which allows for maintenance rehearsal, with a two second capacity.
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Visiospatial Sketchpad
Limited capacity visual memory store, that can retain 3-4 objects. It's subdivided into the visual cache that stores visual data, and the inner scribe, that records the arrangement of objects in the visual field.
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Episodic Buffer
Temporal store for information integrating visual,spatial and verbal information processed by other stores and maintaining a sense of time sequencing by essentially recording events occurring. It links STM to LTM and wider processes.
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Working Memory Model Evaluation
Supporting evidence through dual task performance that shows how we may have trouble performing two visual tasks simultaneously, yet ease with a visual and verbal/ Difficulty remembering a list of long words vs short words/ Brain scanning.
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Interference Theory
Forgetting due to conflict between two pieces of information. Interference is worse when the memories are similar, evidenced by a study of 6 word groups for participants to remember. Upon recall, the synonym group did the worst.
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Proactive Interference
When an older memory interferes with a newer memory. For example, teachers remembering names from the past so struggling to remember new ones.
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Retroactive Interference
When a newer memory interferes with an older memory. For example, teachers learning new names so forgetting those of the past.
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Interference evaluation
Validity through extensive lab studies/ Artificial materials used makes interference more likely in the lab/ Real life studies corroborate including the rugby study/ Flaws in lab studies- recall times are not realistic to real life.
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Retrieval Failure Theory
Insufficient cues are available on recall may be an explanation for forgetting. Certain cues are also stored alongside the memory so if these are not available on recall we may perceive it as forgetting.
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Encoding Specificity Principle
Tulving's recognition that cues are present at coding and so forgetting is least likely when they're also present at retrieval. Some cues may be linked to the material in a meaningful way and others may be mnemonic.
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Context-Dependent Forgetting
Deep sea diver study created four conditions for learning and recalling, including variations of learning and recalling on land and in the sea. Accurate recall was 40% lower in the non matching conditions because external coded cues were not present.
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State-Dependent Forgetting
Drug study created four conditions for learning and recall using a psychological state different from normal. On drug recall there was significantly more forgetting.
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Cue Evaluation
Supporting evidence/ Artificial stimuli of deep sea diver experiment lacks ecological validity/ may not apply to procedural memory
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Eyewitness Testimony
The evidence provided by people who witnessed an event/ crime, that relies on recall. Witnesses are often inaccurate however, which has negative implications for police interviews.
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Loftus and Palmer
Did a study where students had to watch a video of a car crash and report the speed they estimate the car was going after. Those who had the word "smashed" averaged 41mph whereas "contacted" averaged 32mph, due to leading questions.
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Loftus and Palmer Evaluation
Real life application in police interviews/ external validity, not as emotive as real life/ Demand characteristics impact the validity and reliability
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Leading Questions
"Did you see THE broken headlight" or "Did you see A broken headlight". 17% of those in the 'The' condition' said yes whereas only 7% did in the 'A' condition, demonstrating that recall is easily affected by wording.
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Leading Questions Evaluation
Real life application in police interviews/ Control of extraneous variables in lab study and ease of reliability/ artificial stimuli lacks ecological validity.
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Post-Event Discussion
Staged robbery experiment with a secret confederate at the same interview. When the participant responded to questions first, accurate recall was 58% opposing the 68% when the confederate answered accurately and 42% when they answered inaccurately.
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Valentine and Coxon
Studied the impact of age on EWT. Children, adults and elderly answered questions based on a video of a robbery where it was found that children and the elderly gave more incorrect answers to non-leading questions.
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Valentine and Coxon Evaluation
Real life application in police interviews/ Artificial material means the study lacks ecological validity.
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Anxiety Impact
Loftus and 'weapon focus'- where we tend to focus on a weapon as opposed to central details due to anxiety of the event. A study with a criminal holding a pen gave a 49% accuracy rate of identifying the criminal as opposed to 33% holding a knife.
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Anxiety Impact Evaluation
High ecological validity/ Ethical considerations.
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Do They Always Affect EWT
Recall was accurate on a real life shooting incident from witnesses being interviewed 5 months after the event. high ecological validity/ ethical issues
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Cognitive Interview
Helping to increase the accuracy of EWT. 1) Report everything, 2) Reinstate the context, 3) Reverse the order, 4) Change perspective.
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Cognitive Interview Evaluation
Time consuming/ Some aspects are more valuable than others/ meta analysis provides supporting evidence/
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Other cards in this set

Card 2

Front

Permanent memory store, coded mainly semantically, unlimited capacity, can store memories for up to a lifetime.

Back

LTM

Card 3

Front

1966, 4 groups of words- acoustically similar/dissimilar, or semantically similar/dissimilar. Participants had problems recalling acoustically similar words immediately, and problems recalling semantically similar after 20 min interval.

Back

Preview of the back of card 3

Card 4

Front

Lacks ecological validity / no control over participant variables / disregards other types of coding and other types of LTM/

Back

Preview of the back of card 4

Card 5

Front

Digit span experiment. 4 words and then recall, 5 words and then recall, and so on. Mean span for digits 9.3 items and 7.3 for letters.

Back

Preview of the back of card 5
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