the production of plant clones from non-reproductive tissues.
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what are 3 other ways that horticulturists usento produce clones?
cuttings, grafting, layering.
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what is grafting?
joinging one shoot of a plant to the growing stem and root of another plant.
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what is layering?
bending the stem of the plant downwards so it enters the soil and grows a new plant.
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when is tissue culture used?
used to clone plants that don't readily reproduce or are endangered or rare. It is also used to grow whole plants from genetically engeneered plant cells.
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what is micropropagation?
when tissue culture is used to produce lots of cloned plants very quickly.
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how can animal clones occur naturally?
during sexual reproduction, once an egg has been firtilised, it is possible for it to split into multiple embryos in the early stages of development, they then can produce offspring that are genetically identical.
how is artificial embryo twinning carried out? part 1
an egg cell is extracted from a female and fertilised in a petri dish, it is left to divide at least once forming an embryo.
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how is artificial embryo twinning carried out? part 2
next,the individual cells from the embryo are seperated and each one is ut in to a seperate dish, each cell divides and develops normally, an embryo forms in each dish.
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how is artificial embryo twinning carried out? part 3
the embryos are implanted into the surrogate mothers, the embryos continue to develop inside and eventually the offspring are born, all genetically identical to each other.
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how does somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) work? stage 1
a somatic cell (any cell thats not a reproductive cell) is taken form animal A, the nuclus is extracted and kept. an oocyte (immature egg cell) is taken from animal B, its nuclueus is removed to form an enucleated oocyte.
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how does somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) work? stage 2
the nuclues from animal A is inserted in to the enucleated oocyte, the oocyte from animal B now contains genetic info from animal A.
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how does somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) work? stage 3
they are fused together and simulated to divide, producing an embryo, embryo is implanted into surrogate mother and the offspring is a clone of animal A.
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what is biotechnology?
the industrial use of living organisms to produce food, drugs and other products.
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why is it that the living organisms that we use for this, are mostly microorganisms(bacteria and fungi)?
their ideal growth conditions can easily be created, becuase of their short life-cylcle they can grow rapitly under the righ conditions and therefore products are made quickly, can be grown in a range of inexpensive materials and at any time of year.
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what are some of the ways microorganisms are used in the industrial processes?
what are the 2 types of methods for culturing microorganisms?
batch fermentation and continuous fermentation.
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what is bath fermentation?
where microorganisms are grown in individual batches in a fermentation vessel.
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what is contiuous fermentation?
microorganisms are continuously grown in a fermentation vessel without stopping.
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what is a closed culture?
where its isolated in an external environment, nutrients arent added and waste products arent removed- this is an example of batch fermentation
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what is the standaed growth curve?
it consists of the lag hase, exponential phase, stationary phases and the decline phase.
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what happens in lag phase?
the op. size increases slowly because the microorganisms have to make enzymes and other molecules before they can reproduce=reproduction rate is slow.
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what is the exponential phase?
population size increses quickly, doubles at regular intervals
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what is the stationry phase?
population size stayes level because the death rate is equal to the reproductive rate, as there isnt enough food and poisonous waste builds up.
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what is the decline phase?
the pop rate falls becasue the death rate is higher than the reproductive rate,food is very scarce and waste products are at toxic levels.
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wht are the 3 way of immobilising enzymes?
encapsulated in jelly like beads which act as a semi permeable membrane, trapped in a silica gel matrix, covalently bonded to cellulose or collagen fibres.
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what are some examples of what immobalised enzymes are used for?
conversion of lactose to glucose to galactose (lactose free products), production of semi-synthetic penicillins.
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what are 3 other ways that horticulturists usento produce clones?
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