memory people

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Freyd, 1996
Professor Cheit's recovered memories for events which occurred 24 years earlier
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Shobe & Schooler, 2001
often claimed that memories for Childhood Sexual Abuse can be recovered spontaneously or as part of a course of psychotherapy
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Schooler et al., 1997
3 Key requirements: (a) Reality of event, (b) Reality of forgetting, (c) Reality of recovery
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Loftus 1997
Paul Ingram's memories for suggestions from Richard Ofshe
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Roediger and McDermott (1995)
65% probability of recalling an item that was on the list 40% critical lure, serial position curve. Mean hit rate (response 3 or 4) for the items that were on the list was 86%. Mean false alarm rate (response 3 or 4) for critical items not on the lis
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Roediger and McDermott (1995) exp 2
probability of 55% of recalling the critical item that was not on the list. critical lure was recalled, total memory rises to 93% - 73% Remembering
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Loftus and Pickrell (1995)
Seven of the 24 students accepted the false memory, and 6 of them maintained it at interview 25% of false childhood memories are accepted/elab When debriefed, 19 out of 24 participants correctly identified the false event
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Ceci et al., 1994
basic finding has been replicated with other childhood events
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Ost et al., 2005
using UK Home Office approved interviewing guidelines
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Garry & Gerrie, 2005
Rates can be even higher with false or real photograph cues
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Wade et al., (2002)
Photo of youth and try to ask them of memory of event- Move childhood photo on to photoshop – oh I don’t remember that, oh hang on (then give details false memory)
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Simon and Emmons 1956
scores divided by EEG sleep state: Awake but Relaxed80% Drowsy50% Drowsiness/light sleep transition5% Asleep No effect
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Bruce, Evans, Fenwick & Spencer (1970)
Present material to sleeping subjects then awaken them immediately. No evidence for memory
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Pace-Schott et al, 2003
absence of learning about external events while asleep, does not imply that we can’t remember internal events such as dreams
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Hahn et al., 2006
sleep itself might not play an important role in the consolidation of memories
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Levinson 1965
mock crisis at dentist while under anaesthesia, hypno 1mo later, Four patients produced almost verbatim reports of the anaesthetist's comments. Four produced partial reports and only two produced no recall at all under hypnosis
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Graf & Schacter, 1985
when demonstrate effected by something even though cant say where the info came from implicit
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Iselin-Chaves et al., (2005)
Depth of anaesthesia carefully monitored using EEG listen to two lists of 20 words, each presented 25 times
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Jacoby 1991
Process dissociation procedure Inclusion Test - Produce items from any source that fits question/criteria Exclusion Test - Only produce items that you didn’t study previously/encounter on previous list Explicit not stat dif from chance
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cont
Implicit depend systematically on how deeply anaesthetised they were at time, deeply anaes get implicit
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Loftus 1997
weapon focus
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Rinck 1999
memory for keypads
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Chase and Ericson 1981
digit span chunking does it improve mem in general no letter span is still 6- only for numbers works
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Searleman & Herrmann, 1994
historical types of memory research pragmatic experimental theoretical atheoretical
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Ebbinghaus
method of complete mastry and method of savings
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Fechner
founder of psychophysics perceptions of sensory stim
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Keppel 1964
massed vs distributed practice
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Baddeley and Longman 1978
Training for one hour per session, or ideally day, is most efficient cf. 4 hrs per day.
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Bower et al., 1969
words learned 4x faster if given appropriate network of meanings
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Bransford and Johnson 1972
Given big story to retrieve If given with context picture or not Or title Pictures helping Context before learning dramatically increases performance
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Brewer and Treyens 1981
Books- false memory spontaneous recall – not just recalling what you seen but recall according to your expectations- office schema 14 participants rate objects for “schema expectancy” – How likely the objects would be to appear in a room like this.
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cont
14 participants rate objects for “saliency” – How noticeable the object is (or would be) in this room
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Smith & Graesser (1981)
Stories containing well-scripted sequences of events are learned. Some of the items in each story are typical of the script, others would be atypical.
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buzan 2010
mindmaps
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Karpicke & Blunt, 2011
revising is best done by testing knowledge rather than just elaborating it (
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Rohrer and Pashler 2007
careful spreading of testing intervals relative to retention intervals is very important for optimal retention
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Loftus and Loftus 1980
do we forget psychs no 84 yes 14 non-psychs no 69 yes 23
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Penfield & Perot, 1963
Direct stimulation of the temporal lobes often results in patients spontaneously reporting memory-like events.
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Loftus & Loftus (1980)
penfield reports on 40 pp Only 12 patients reported things that could be identified as being past experiences (less than 3% of those studied). of initial over 1000
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brown and peterson and peterson (1959)
Encode a consonant trigram (e.g. TLW) Count down in 3s from a number (e.g. 492) Recall consonant trigram Performance depends on delay
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Keppel & Underwood (1962)
demonstrate that Brown-Peterson forgetting is at least partly caused by Proactive Interference rather than decay
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Wickens 1970
The fact that Brown/Peterson forgetting is due to proactive interference is demonstrated clearly by the release from PI phenomenon
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Loftus & Palmer (1974)
smashed vs hit - any broken glass? smash no 34 yes 16 hot no 43 yes 7
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Loftus (1979)
post event info
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Loftus, Miller and Burns 1978
stop vs yield sign Where question was consistent performance was 75% Where question was misleading performance was 51% • Effect is increased with delay (2 weeks vs. 20 mins). • Reduced by forwarning, blatency, or public statement. Unaffected by in
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McCloskey and Zaragoza 1985
traditional test misled 37 control 72, modified test misled 72 control 75
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Ayers & Reder, 1998
not need for trace destruction - though there may still be some interference in practice
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Wilkinson & Cargill (1955)
told doing personality study Men have worse memory than women for the oedipal material
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McCullough et al. (1976)
If subjects are not told that the experiment is about personality - no effect. e.g. results are just a self-presentational bias
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Levinger & Clark (1961)
free assoc task with neutral and emotional stim words - Free associates to neutral words recalled better than those to emotional words
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Rubin, 1986
test of memory for associates – not memory for the stimuli themselves. Memory for stimulus words generally is better if they are arousing
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Kleinsmith & Kaplan (1963)
also an immediate memory test - influences of arousal sometimes are clearer after delays
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Parkin, Lewinsohn & Folkard (1982)
replicated Levinger and Clark with a delay- At immediate testing memory for associates to emotional words is poorer, but after 7 days, memory for associates to emotional words is better than for neutral ones.
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(Walker, 1958)
The Action-Decrement theory - Memory traces take time to consolidate – physiological arousal increases the time for the trace to consolidate, but may improve longer-term encoding.
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Anderson, Wais & Gabrieli (2006)
Pictures – neturals with no emotion expected, then shown emotional picture/arousoing picture Varied ISI Distractor flanker task Better memory for arousing images
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results
Memory for Arousing Stimuli is Enhanced Memory for Neutral Stimuli shortly before Arousing ones is Enhanced Enhancement is for Remembering rather that Knowing
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McGaugh, 2006
Interpretation in terms of Perseveration-Consolidation modern version of action depriment hypo- at the point processing an item it enters a state where extra arousal effect memory and consol better
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Finn & Roediger (2011)
Vocabulary learning is enhanced by negative arousing pictures immediately after (E1) or 2 secs after (E2) successful retrieval. But arousal does not enhance performance while restudying items (E3)
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Nelson 1978
new assoc 20% recall, old assoc 50% recall Apparently forgotten memories can still influence behaviour • Forgetting may be a progressive reduction in availability through interference (or partial decay) rather than a deletion of the memory
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Luria's (1968)
about "s" the mind of a mnomist
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Stromeyer & Psotka (1970)
The superposition method of testing typographic eidetic imagery. e.g. Random-dot stereograms (Julesz, 1964) Elizabeth 23yo artist at harvard4
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Erdelyi & Becker (1974)
Hypermnesia- improvement over time Poems thinking and pondering about then helps you enhance your memory Over three retrieval attempts, amount of retrievable info increases, particularly in case of pictures and when had been thinking about items be
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Mulligan, 2006
hypermesia requires consistent increases in “retrieval effort”
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Scrivner & Safer (1988)
recall immediately, do qaire, recall again, qiare 2, recall 3, 48hr later recall 4 Recall does seem to improve over time, though this may be partly down to limited recall time (7 minutes) and the 47 box detail procedure.
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Kern, Libkumen & Otani, 2002).
replicated hypermnesia effects for emotional items and suggest that hypermnesia may be even stronger in negatively arousing conditions
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Groninger & Murray, 2004
hyperamnesia in recog so cannot all just be retrieval
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Anderson, 2003, 2005
started to stress the role of inhibition as a general process in memory storage and retrieval
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Slamecka (1968):
part list cueing impairs memory
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Bäuml & Aslan, 2006, 2011
interpretation is in terms of both Strategy Disruption and active Inhibition
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Anderson, Bjork & Bjork (1994):
Encode Category-Exemplar pairs. Practice Retrieval of Half the pairs Average for unpracticed categories. Enhanced for practiced exemplars of practiced categories. But impaired for unpracticed exemplars of practiced categories.
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Anderson & Green (2001):
Learn 40 word pairs (e.g. ORDEAL - ROACH) Then 0 to 16 practice trials. Trying not to think about assoc might directly inhibit assoc Does it work? Yes apaz so
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Anderson & Levy, 2009
Success in inhibition appears to be correlated with active engagement of prefrontal cortex in suppressing hippocampal activation
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Sahakyan & Foster, 2009
inhibition paradigms can be extended to memories for real events - e.g. actions and autobio memories
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Gordon & Connolly, 2010).
Active suppression through NO-THINK or Directed Forgetting could potentially explain loss of memories from Childhood Sexual Abuse
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Storm, 2011
In everyday situations inhibition may be important for successful retrieval, and other domains such as creative problems solving
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Tulving & Psotka (1971)
Free or cued recall- cued by category names – dog, cat etc Basic advantage But not a huge advantage in this experiment for cued
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Anderson and Bower (1972)
generate recognise theory of recall - pegword method, method of loci
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Tulving and Thomson (1973)
recognition failure - Recall is better than recognition in this task • Many words are recalled that were not recognised and numbers
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Tulving (1983)
encoding specificity principle Memory performance is best when the cues present at test match those that were encoded with the memory at study
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Godden and Baddeley 1975
A change of context impairs memory because cues from the environment have been integrated into the encoding. But no effect in recognition
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Goodwin et al., (1969)
state dep Better performance in general if sober BUT if learned drunk, would do better if recall drunk
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bower monteiro and gilligan
mood dependent memory
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teasdale and russell 1983
We tend to recall information congruent with our current mood (i.e. if we’re happy, we think happy thoughts).
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Kassin, Ellsworth & Smith (1989)
ewt view survey with numbers - effected by how Qs worded true 97, common 27, ID culprit seen in other context T 85 common 17, confidence not as good as accuracy T 87 common 3
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Robinson & Johnson (1996)
Laboratory experiments rarely demonstrate convincing relationships between confidence and accuracy Then either have to Recall or Recognise (4AFC) items from the film in a memory test, and rate their confidence in the judgements. recog .29, recall .53
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Maylor (1990)
222 elderly participants asked to telephone the lab once a day, at a specified time for a week compared with digit span, 30 item free recall task, list learning semantic memory
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results
0.11 errors out of 5 conjunction of phoning with a regularly occurring event, 0.30 errors, was also obtained by using external cues, (e.g. setting an alarm clock, 0.83 errors on average, came from participants using internal cues just remembering
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Henry et al., 2004
suggest that the elderly may only be impaired in laboratory prospective tasks
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Johnson, Taylor & Raye (1977)
people find it difficult to distinguish between internal and external events in frequency judgements Paired Associate Learning Judge how often item studied and how often item tested
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Johnson & Raye (1981)
Memory for the source of information may not be stored, so we may remember the content of internally generated events but forget that the source was internal. The source of a memory may generally be reconstructed from its content.
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Johnson, Foley, Suengas, & Raye (1988)
Real and imagined memories may differ on a number of dimensions - more perceptual information, more contextual information, and more supporting memories. But time blurs this distinction.
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Schooler, Gerhard, & Loftus (1986)
stim from loftus, miller and burns - lots of stats Misinformation causes you to recall the wrong sign Get people to give a lot of details about slide Highly confdident of the suggested memories- but only slightly less confident than the real memory
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results
Classification 59% correct for real memories, 60% for suggested memories. i.e. Just better than chance, but 40% incorrect
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Johnson, Foley, Suengas, & Raye, 1988
Time blurs the distinction between perceptual and contextual information
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Suengas & Johnson (1988
repeatedly thinking about events may additionally decrease the differences in memory between real and imagined events
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Ross(1989)
remembered attitude- dangers of jogging, remembered behaviour- dangers of tooth brushing
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(Conway & Ross, 1984)
remembered abilities- how good you thought your study skills were before a study programme
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Galton (1883)
Safety, Product, Ship, Time... Recall one memory associated with each word. Describe and date the memories cue word technique
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Linton (1975)
. If tested once a year almost no forgetting at all If hasn’t been recalled at all, forgetting much higher - memories put in card box
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Wagenaar, 1986
Cued Recall testing with 24 different cuing orders.filled out card saying what they did Standard forgetting function - but items still always recognised
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Wagenaar, 1994)
Other analyses of the original data suggest good memory for unpleasant self-critical events - not consistent with repression
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Talarico et al., 2004
intensity of the emotion is more important Than its valence in predicting good memory
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Barclay & Wellman (1986)
, over time they become more likely to falsely accept altered foil events as their own.
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(Horselenberg et al., 2004
Fantasy-prone individuals may actually be better in this sort of recognition task
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Waldfogel (1948)
Studies using the cue word technique reveal surprisingly few memories from the first few years of life
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Usher & Neisser (1993)
get round this problem by using parents to verify specific events. But 22% of parents’ memories actually differed
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Eacott & Crawley (1998)
Replicate the Usher & Neisser study with an interesting control condition, and larger number of participants in the key cells. This study pins down first memory to between 2 years and 2 years 3 months approx.
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Rubin et al., 1986
Memories of 70 year olds show both childhood amnesia, but also evidence for a reminiscence peak
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Conway & Pleydell-Pearce (2000)
Autobiographical Knowledge involves Lifetime Periods, General Events, and Event Specific Knowledge (Conway & Bekerian, 1987), cf. Schooler & Herrmann (1992) Periods, episodes, moments
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Skowronski et al., 1991
Thus one good predictor of accuracy in dating memories is degree of self-reference
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Hyman, 1999
reliance on Working Self produces the possibility of inference and bias errors
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Wells & Bradfield (1998)
Slightest bit of misinformation can impact beliefs at a later stage
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Bahrick et al., 1996
egocentric bias remember 89% for A not 29% for D over est
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- Kvavilashvili & Mandler, 2001
Sometimes memories come when they are not wanted. A common everyday example of this is spontaneous memory for music (e.g. involuntary semantic memory
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Wenzlaff & Wegner, 2000
Though suppression leads to: Immediate suppressed thought enhancement, with and without load; plus post-suppression rebound
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Rynearson & McCreery, 1993
PTSD provides a much more dramatic and serious example of unwanted memories for traumatic events (“flashbacks”, though there is some question of whether it is the event or the emotion that is actually critical in PTSD flashbacks
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Anderson & Schooler (2000)
propose that standard transience is actually a way of ensuring that useful information is most likely to be retrieved
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(Schacter, 2001).
Similarly blocking is most likely for names that are not being used regularly
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Schacter, Guerin & St Jacques (2011
propose that misattribution and suggestibility errors arise from the power of memory in simulation and creativity
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Wilson & Ross, 2003
Memory biases may serve to enhance self esteem
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Jacoby et al. (1989)
false fame paradigm - Read series of names on day one. Judge fame on day two. Misattribution of familiarity to fame.
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Whittlesea (1993)
New but fluent words are often falsely recognised sometimes word given once and tested later- have you seen it before or not? Boat--- One of two contexts Stormy seas tossed the boat- context explicit and boat activited partially Vs He saved his mon
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Shobe & Schooler, 2001

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often claimed that memories for Childhood Sexual Abuse can be recovered spontaneously or as part of a course of psychotherapy

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Schooler et al., 1997

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Loftus 1997

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Roediger and McDermott (1995)

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