Memory

What did Joseph Jacobs in 1887 find about the capacity of short term memory?

Used the digit span technique. Found the average span for digits was 9.3 and 7.3 for letters

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What did George Miller in 1956 find out about the capacity of short term memory?

Wrote an article called The Magic Number 7+-2. Reviewed research and concluded capacity was around 7. People can count 7 dots flashed on a screen but not many more. Same with musical notes, letter and words

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What are the evaluation point titles?

May be even more limited, size of the chunk matters and individual differences

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What is the first evaluation point for the capacity of STM?

May be even more limited- Cowan: Reviewed studies and concluded it's limited to 4 chunks. Vogel et al: Found 4 itms was the limit for visual information

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What is the second evaluation point for the capacity of STM?

Size of the chunk matters- Simon: Found had a shorter memory span for larger chunks such as 8 words phrases, than smaller chunks, such as 1 syllable words

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What is the third evaluation point for the capacity of STM?

Individual differences-Capacity isn't the same for everyone. Jacobs: Found it increases with age. 8 year olds could remember 6.6 digits whereas 19 year olds it was 8.6. Either an increased in capacity or better techniques to remember

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What is the duration of short term memory?

Peterson + Peterson 1959: 24 students. On each trial, given a consonant syllable and 3 digit number. Asked to recall the syllable after a retention interval of 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18 seconds. 90% after 3, 20% after 9 and 2% after 18

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What is the duration of long term memory?

Bahrick et al 1975: 400 people age 17-74. Photo recognition: 50 photos from their yearbook. After 15 years, 90% accurate. After 48, 70%. Free recall: Asked to list any names. After 15, 60%. After 48, 30%

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What are the evaluation point titles?

Testing STM was artificial and STM results may be due to displacement

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What is the first evaluation point for duration?

Testing STM was artificial- Memorising syllables doesn't reflect most instances of everyday remembering

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What is the second evaluation point for duration?

STM results may be due to displacement- In the Peterson study participants were counting the numbers in STM, which may displace the syllable. Reitman: Used auditory tones. Duration was larger. Nairne et al: Duration was up to 96 seconds

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What is short term and long term memory's coding?

STM is largely acoustic and LTM semantic

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Who found this out and when?

Baddeley 1966: Word lists. Participants had difficulty remembering acoustically similar words in STM but not LTM, whereas semantically similar words were fine for STM but not LTM

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What are the evaluation point titles?

Baddeley may not have tested LTM, STM may not be exclusively acoustic and LTM may not be exclusively semantic

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What is the first evaluation point of coding?

Baddeley may not have tested LTM- Tested by waiting 20 minutes. Is that really long term memory?

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What is the second evaluation point of coding?

STM may not be exclusively acoustic- Brandimate et al: Participants used visual coding in STM if given a visual task and prevented from doing verbal rehearsal in the retention interval. Wickens et al: Showed STM uses a semantic code

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What is the third evaluation point of coding?

LTM may not be exclusively semantic- Frost:Showed long term recall were related to visual categories. Nelson + Rothbart: Found evidence of acoustic coding

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Who made up the multi-store model of memory and when?

Atkinson + Shiffrin in 1968

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What is the first part of the MSM?

Sensory register- Where information is held at each of the senses and corresponding areas of the brain. Capacity of these are large. Constantly receiving information but not given attention so leave after a few milliseconds

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What is the second part of the MSM?

Attention- If a person's attention is focused on one of the sensory stores, then the data is transferred to STM

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What is the third part of the MSM?

Short term memory- Information is held here so it can be used for immediate tasks. Limited duration. Information will disappear if not rehearsed or if replaced

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What is the fourth part of the MSM?

Maintenance rehearsal- Repeating things to remember them. Repetition eventually creates a long term memory.

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What is the fifth part of the MSM?

Long term memory- Potentially unlimited in duration and capacity. If you feel you forgot something, it's likely there but can't be found or you didn't make it permanent

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What is the sixth part of the MSM?

Retrieval- Process of getting information from LTM involves the information passing back through STM them its made available for use

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What are the evaluation point titles?

Support, case studies, too simple and LTM involves more than rehearsal

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What is the first evaluation point of the MSM?

Support- Previous studies on capacity, duration and coding. Beardsley: Found the prefrontal cortex is active during STM but not LTM. Squire et al: Hippocampus is active when the LTM is engaged

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What is the second evaluation point of the MSM?

Case studies- Scoville + Milner: HM. His brain damage was caused by an operation remove the hippocampus from both sides to reduce his epilepsy. His personality and intellect remained but he couldn't form new LTMS,

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What is the third evaluation point of the MSM?

Too simple- Research and the WMM have shown STM and LTM are divided into many different stores, specifically about what type of memory. MSM doesn't explain this e.g. maintenance rehearsal can't explain episodic memories

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What is the fourth evaluation point of the MSM?

LTM involves more than rehearsal- Craik + Tulving: Gave participants a list of nouns and asked a question that involved shallow or deep processing- whether a was printed in capitals or if it fitted in a sentence. Remembered the deep words

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Who made up the working memory model and when?

Baddeley + Hitch 1974

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What is the first part of the WMM?

Central executive- Directs attention to tasks. Determines how the brain's resources are allocated. Resources are 3 slave systems. Data arrives from the senses or LTM. Limited capacity so can't store data or attend to too much

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What is the second part of the WMM?

Phonological loop- Limited capacity. Deals with auditory information and preserves the order of information

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What did Baddeley in 1986 divide it into?

1) Phonological store- Holds words you hear. 2) Articulatory process- Used for words heard or seen. These words are silently repeated

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What is the third part of the WMM?

Visual-spatial sketchpad- Used when you have to plan a spatial task. Visual and spatial information is temporarily stored here

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What did Logie in 1995 divide it into?

1) Visual cache- Stores information about visual items. 2) Inner scribe- Stores the arrangement of objects in the visual field

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What is the fourth part of the WMM?

Episodic buffer- Added in 2000 as needed a general store for information that relates to both visual and acoustic information. Limited capacity. Integrates information from the CE, PL and V-**. Maintains a sense of time sequencing. Sends info to LTM

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What are the evaluation point titles?

Dual task performance, brain damaged patients, central executive and brain damaged patients

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What is the first evaluation point of the WMM?

Dual task performance- Baddeley + Hitch: Task 1 occupied the CE. Last 2 either involved the AL or the CE and AL. Task 1 slower when task2 involved both the CE and AL. Supports the existence of the CE

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What is the second evaluation point of the WMM?

Brain-damaged patients- Shallice + Warrington: KF. Short term forgetting of auditory information was greater than visual. Also limited to verbal materials but not meaningful sounds. So restricted to PL

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What is the third evaluation point of the WMM?

Central executive- Vague and only having one is wrong. Eslinger + Damasio: EVR. Had a cerebral tumour removed. Performed well on reasoning tests but had poor decision making skills so CE wasn't fully intact but part was

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What is the fourth evaluation point of the WMM?

Brain damaged patients- Issues with this basis. The issues may have been there beforehand and the trauma itself may change behaviour and the person may have other difficulties such as paying attention

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What is long term memory divided into?

Explicit and implicit memory. It's a distinction between knowing that and knowing how. Episodic and semantic: Knowing that. Procedural: Knowing how

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What are the three types of long term memory?

Episodic, semantic and procedural

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What is episodic?

Event or group of events. Concerned with your personal experiences. 3 elements: specific details, the context and the emotion

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What is semantic?

Knowledge about the world shared by everyone. May relate to things, appropriate behaviour or abstract concepts. Usually start as episodic but transition when they lose association with particular events

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What is procedural?

Concerned with skills. Remembering how to do something. Acquired through repetition and practice. Automatic so less aware of them. So we can focus on other tasks whilst performing this task

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What are the evaluation point titles?

Brain scans, distinguishing procedural and declarative, Alzheimers patients and 4th kind

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What is the first evaluation point of LTM?

Brain scans- Episodic: Hippocampus, frontal lobe and other parts of the temporal lobe where the hippocampus is. Semantic: Temporal lobe. Procedural: Cerebellum, basal ganglia and limbic system

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What is the second evaluation point of LTM?

Distinguishing procedural and declarative- HM. Could form new procedural memories only. However, he had no memory he'd learnt this

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What is the third evaluation point of LTM?

Hodges + Patterson- Alzheimers patients. Found some could form new semantics but not episodics. Single dissociation. Not enough as it could be episodic places greater demands so more affected. Trish et al: Found reverse. So episodic may be a gateway

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What is the fourth evaluation point of LTM?

4th kind- Research has shown priming is controlled by a brain system separate from the temporal system that supports explicit. 4th type: Perceptual-representation system. Spiers et al: 147 amnesia patients. Procedural + PRSs intact, not other 2

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What is retroactive interference?

Current attempts to learn something interfere with past learning

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Who found this?

Müller 1900

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What did he do?

Gave participants a list of nonsense syllables to learn for 6 minutes and then, after a retention interval, asked to recall them. Less good if given an intervening task between learning and recall (Asked to describe pictures)

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What is proactive interference?

Past learning interferes with current attempts to learning something

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Who found this?

Underwood 1957

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What did he do?

Analysed findings from studies and found if participants memorised 10 or more lists then, after 24 hours, they remembered 20%. For one list, recall was 70%

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How does similarity of test materials affect recall?

Interference is strongest the more similar the items are. Shows it's interference and not decay

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Who found this?

McGeoch + McDonald 1931

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What was the procedure?

Gave participants a list of 10 adjectives. When learned, given a resting interval of 10 minutes where they learned List B, followed by recall

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What were the findings?

If List B was a list of synonyms of List A, recall was 21%; if List B was nonsense syllabus, recall was 26%; if List B was numbers, recall was 37%

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Who did the real-world study into interference?

Baddeley + Hitch 1977

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What was the procedure?

Asked rugby players to recall the names of teams they'd played over the season. Some played all games whereas others missed some. Time interval from start to end was the same for all but number of intervening games was different

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What were the findings?

The players who played the most games forgot more because of interference

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What the evaluation point titles?

Only explains some, accessibility vs availability, application and individual differences

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What is the first evaluation point of interference?

Only explains some- Two memories need to be quite similar so doesn't explain a lot of everyday forgetting

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What is the second evaluation point of interference?

Accessibility vs availability- Ceraso: Found, if memory was tested again after 24 hours, recognition (accessibility) showed spontaneous recovery, whereas recall (availability) remained the same. So, it occurs because memory is temporarily unavailable

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What is the third evaluation point of interference?

Application- Danaher et al: Recall of advertiser's message was impaired when participants were exposed to 2 ads for competing brands in a week. Should instead run multiple exposures over one day

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What is the fourth evaluation point of interference?

Indvidual differences- Kane + Engle- Less susceptible if have a greater working memory span. Gave participants 3 word lists. Those with low WM span showed greater proactive interference. Also found it meant greater resources to counteract PI effects

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What is retrieval failure?

Occurs due to the absence of cues. Forget because a memory is there but not accessible so can't retrieve it. Retrieval depends on cues

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Who made up the encoding specificity principle?

Tulving + Thomson 1973

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What is the encoding specificity principle?

Memory is most effective if information present as encoding is available at the time of retrieval. Also, the cue doesn't have to be exact, but the closer, the better

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Who found this?

Tulving + Pearlstone 1966

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What was the procedure?

Participants had to learn 48 words for 12 categories, presented as category + word. Either to recall as many as they could (Free) or given the category names (Cued)

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What were the findings?

Free: 40% of the words on average. Cued: 60%

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What is context-dependent forgetting?

When we learn information, we often remember the environmental context so that acts as a cue

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Who did the first study into context-dependent forgetting?

Abernathy 1940

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What was the procedure?

Arranged for students to be tested before a certain course began. Then tested each week. Some tested in their teaching room by their usual instructor, others by a different instructor. Others a different room by their instructor or by a different one

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What were the findings?

Those tested by the same instructor in the same room performed best. Also found superior students were least affect by the changes and the inferior ones, the most

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Who did the second study into context-dependent forgetting?

Godden + Baddeley 1975

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What was the procedure?

Arranged for scuba divers to learn a set of words on land or underwater. Then tested either on land or underwater

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What were the findings?

Results show highest recall when the initial context matched the recall environment

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What is state-dependent forgetting?

When learn information, we often remember the emotional state at the time and so this acts as a cue

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Who did the study into state-dependent forgetting?

Goodwin et al 1969

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What was the procedure?

Asked male volunteers to remember a list of words either drunk or sober (drank 3x the UK drink driving limit). Were asked to recall after 24 hours either drunk or sober

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What were the findings?

Recall was best when initial emotional state matched recall emotional state

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What are the evaluation point titles?

Application, don't always work, danger of circularity and explains interference

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What is the first evaluation point of retrieval failure?

Application- Can improve recall for e.g. exams. Abernathy felt you should revise in the same room as exams. May be unrealistic but you can imagine it. Smith: Showed mental reinstatement was as effective. Used in the cognitive interview

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What is the second evaluation point of retrieval failure?

Don't always work- You're learning about complex associations, less easily triggered. Outshining hypothesis: Cue's effectiveness is reduced by presence of better cues. Smith + Vela: Context cues eliminated when learning meaningful material

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What is the third evaluation point of retrieval failure?

Danger of circularity- Nairne: Claims the relationship between encoding cues and retrieval is correlational rather than a cause. Baddeley: ESP is impossible to test as it's circular. If a stimulus leads to retrieval, then it must've been encoded

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What is the fourth evaluation point of retrieval failure?

Explains interference- Tulving + Psotka:Participants were 6 word lists (24 words into 6 categories). After each was presented, free recalled. After all, given category names. Each participant given a different amount. Free: More= Worse. Cued: All 70%

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Who did the experiment into leading questions?

Loftus + Palmer 1974

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What was the procedure of their first experiment?

45 students. Shown 7 films of car accidents. After each, given a questionnaire. 'About how fast were the cars going when they hit?'. Hit was changed for different verbs

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What were the findings of their first experiment?

Found different mean MPH for each verb. Smashed: 40.8. Collided: 39.3. Bumped: 38.1. Hit: 34. Contacted: 31.8

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What was the procedure of their second experiment?

New set of participants divided into 3 groups and shown a film of a car accident lasting 1 minute. Asked questions about speed. Then 1 week later after 10 questions. 'Did you see any broken glass?' (Wasn't any)

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What were the findings of their second experiment?

Control: Yes- 6, no- 44. Smashed: Yes- 16, no- 34. Hit: Yes- 7, no- 43

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What are the parts of post-event discussion?

Conformity effect and repeat interviewing

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What is the conformity effect?

Co-witnesses may reach a consensus view of what actually happened

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Who investigated this?

Gabbert et al 2003

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What did they do?

Participants were in pairs. Each partner watched a different video of the same event so they viewed unique items. In one condition, encouraged to discuss before each partner recalled the event. 71% who'd discussed, mistakenly recalled items

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What is repeat interviewing?

Each time an eye witness is interviewed there's the possibility that comments from the interviewer will become incorporated into their recollection of events. Interviewer also may use leading questions and thus alter memory. Especially for children

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What are the evaluation point titles?

Real life, application, individual differences and response bias

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What is the first evaluation point of misleading information?

Real life- Lab studies don't emotionally arouse and people may not take them seriously. Yuille + Cutshall: Witnesses to an armed robbery in Canada gave accurate reports 4 months after even though they were initially given 2 misleading questions

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What is the second evaluation point of misleading information?

Application- Criminal justice system relies heavily on EWT. Psychological research has warned them. Recent DNA exoneration cases have shown mistaken identification was the largest single factor for the conviction of innocent people

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What is the third evaluation point of misleading information?

Individual differences- Schacter et al: Found, compared to younger subjects, elderly people have difficulty remembering the source their information. So they come more prone to the effect of misleading information

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What is the fourth evaluation point of misleading information?

Response bias- Bekerian + Bowers:1: Given questions each matched with data that was consistent or inconsistent, and later asked same questions (Different order). Less accurate if given inconsistent data. 2: Questions in same order. No difference

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How does anxiety have a negative effect on eyewitness testimony?

Weapon focus effect- A weapon in the criminal's hand distracts attention (because of the anxiety it creates), reducing accuracy of identification

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Who did the key study into this?

Johnson + Scott 1976

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Who was the procedure?

Participants sat in a waiting room. Heard an argument in an adjoining room and then saw a man run through carrying a pen covered in grease or a knife covered in blood. Later asked to identify him from photos

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What were the findings?

Mean accuracy was 49% in identifying the man in the pen condition, compared with 33% accuracy in the knife condition

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What did Loftus et al (1987) find?

Monitored eye movements and found the presence of a weapon cause attention to be physically drawn towards the weapon

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How does anxiety have a positive effect on eyewitness testimony?

Creates more enduring and accurate memories. e.g the evolutionary argument suggests it's adapt to remember events that are emotionally important so you could identify similar ones in the future and recall how to respond

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Who did the key study into this?

Christianson + Hubinette 1993

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What was the procedure?

Questioned 58 real witnesses to bank robberies in Sweden. Victims (bank teller) or bystanders, i.e. high and low anxiety. Interviews conducted 4-15 months after

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What were the findings?

All witnesses showed good memory for the details of the robbery itself (better than 75%). The most anxious people had best recall

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What did Deffenbacher find?

Reviewed 21 studies of the effects of anxiety. Found 10 had results that linked higher arousal levels to increased accuracy whilst 11 showed the opposite

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What did Deffenbacher suggest?

The Yerkes-Dodson effect- Occasions when anxiety is only moderate and then accuracy is enhanced. When it's too extreme then accuracy will be reduced

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What are the evaluation point titles?

Surprise, real vs lab, individual differences and catastrophe theory

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What is the first evaluation point of anxiety?

Surprise- Pickel: Participants watched a thief enter a salon carrying scissors, handgun, wallet or a raw chicken. Identification was least accurate in the high surprise conditions

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What is the second evaluation point of anxiety?

Real vs lab- May be lab studies don't create the real levels of anxiety. Deffenbacher et al: Agree but found lab studies found reduced accuracy and real life studies even greater loss. At odds with Christianson + Hubinette

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What is the third evaluation point of anxiety?

Individual differences-Bothwell et al: Participants assessed for neuroticism. Tested and labelled as neurotic or stable. Found the stable participants showed rising levels of accuracy as stress levels increased. The opposite was true for neurotics

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What is the fourth evaluation point of anxiety?

Catastrophe theory- Fazey + Hardy: Predicts when physiological arousal increases beyond the optimum levels, the inverted-U hypothesis predicts a gradual decrease in performance. But sometimes a catastrophic decline, due to increase in mental activity

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Who studied the standard police interview?

Fisher + Geiselman 1992

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What s wrong with the standard police interview?

Interviewer does most of the talking. Often asks questions that require forced choice answers. Often predetermined on a checklist. Discouraged from adding extra information. May ask leading questions. Discussions may contaminate memory

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Who made up the cognitive interview?

Geiselman et al 1984

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What is the first part of the cognitive interview?

Mental reinstatement of original context- Interviewer encourages them to mentally recreate the physical and psychological environment. Makes memories accessible as they need cues

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What is the second part of the cognitive interview?

Report everything- Memories are interconnected so recollection of one item may cue others. Also the recollection of small details may eventually be pieced together

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What is the third part of the cognitive interview?

Change order- As our recollections are influenced by schemas, changing the order prevents the pre-existing scheme influencing recall

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What is the fourth part of the cognitive interview?

Change perspective- Disrupts schemas again

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What are the evaluation point titles?

Effectiveness, quantity vs quality, problems and individual differences

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What is the first evaluation point of the cognitive interview?

Effectiveness- Köhnken et al: Meta-analysis of 53 studies. Increase of 34% in correct information. Milne + Bull: Interviewed undergrads and children using 1 component. Overall: No difference from control. Combo of RE + MR: Higher recall

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What is the second evaluation point of the cognitive interview?

Quantity vs quality- Meant to enhance quantity without compromising quality but may be that effectiveness is largely to do with quantity. Köhnken et al:Found 81% in correct information but 61% in incorrect

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What is the third evaluation point of the cognitive interview?

Problems- Kebbell + Wagstaff: Officers don't have enough time and prefer to use strategies to limit the report to the minimum amount of information that's necessary. Also requires special training and many forces haven't provided enough time

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What is the fourth evaluation point of the cognitive interview?

Individual differences- Negative stereotypes about older adults' memory can make them overly cautious about reporting information. CI overcomes this. Mello + Fisher: Showed filmed fake crime and then used CI or SI. Advantage of CI greater for elders

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