Med phys mid sem

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What are the functions of the reproductive system?
The breeding of species (most important), development(puberty) and maintenance of health
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What are male gametes called? (single and plural)
Spermatozoa (plural), spermatozoon (single)
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What are female gametes called? (single and plural)
Ova (plural), ovum (single)
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What are male gonads called? (single and plural)
Testes (plural), testis (single)
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What are female gonads called? (single and plural)
Ovaries (plural), Ovary (single)
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What is the function of gonads?
Gametogenesis
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What is the male sex hormone?
Testosterone
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What are the female sex hormones?
Oestrogen and progesterone
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What is the function of sex hormones?
Regulation of reproduction and development
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What makes up the male reproductive tract?
Epididymis, vas deferens, ejaculatory duct, urethra
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What makes up the female reproductive tract?
Fallopian tube, uterus, cervical canal, vagina
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What are the functions of the male reproductive system?
Store and deliver gametes
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What are the functions of the female reproductive system?
receive gametes, location for fertilisation, embryonic development and parturition
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What are the male accessory sex organs?
Prostate gland, seminal vesicles, Bulbouethral glands
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What are the female accessory sex organs?
Mammary glands
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What are the functions of male accessory sex organs?
Provide support and nourishment for gametes
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What are the functions of female accessory sex organs?
Provide nourishment for baby
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What shape are testes, how big are they and how much do they weigh?
oval, 5x2.5cm and 10-15g
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How many lobules in a testis?
400
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How many semineferous tubules are in 1 lobule, what occurs in the tubule and what do they tubules contain?
1-4, spermatogenesis occurs here, they contain leydig (intersitial) cells and testosterone
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What are the functions of the epididymis?
Connects testes to vas deferens, major site of maturation and storage of spermatozoa
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What is the epidiymis and where is it located?
A c-shaped organ located on the posterior surface of the testes
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How long is the epididymis?
~3.5cm
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What type of cells and muscle make up the epididymis?
Epithelial cells and smooth muscle
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How long is the vas deferens?
~35cm
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What is the function of the vas deferens?
Connects the epididymis to ejaculatory duct
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What type of cells and muscle make up the vas deferens?
epithelial cells, smooth muscle
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What are seminal vesicles and where are they located?
Paired glands (~5cm long), posterior aspect of bladder
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What are the functions of the seminal vesicles?
Secrete seminal fluid, fuses with vas deferens
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Ho wlong is the ejaculatory duct?
~2cm
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What is the function of the prostate gland?
Secretes prostatic fluid into the urethra
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How long is the urethra?
~20cm
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What are the three parts of the male urethra?
Prostatic urethra, Membranous urethra, penile urethra (major section)
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What are the 3 columns of erectile tissue?
Corpus cavernosa (pair) and corpus spongiosm
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What is the function of corpus cavernosa? corpus spongiosm?
Corpus cavernosa gets filled with blood during an erection while corpus spongiosm opens up the urethra during an erection
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What is the main function of the penis?
Facilitates delivery of semen into the vagina
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Where are the bulbourethral gland located?
Underneath the prostate gland at the base of the penis
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What are the bulbourethral glands?
A pair of exocrine glands
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What is the optimal temperature for spematogenesis?
3-5 degrees below body temp (32-34 degrees)
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What is Cryptorchidism?
When testes fail to descend
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What do the semineferous tubules contain? (pre and post puberty)
basement membrane, sertoli cells, lumen. Pre puberty: small number of germ cells and sertoli cells, post-puberty: more germ cells
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What are the stages between spermatogonia and spermatozoa?
Spermatogonia (type A & B), primary spermatocytes, secondary spermatocytes, spermatids, spermatozoa
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What is the initial mitotic division of spermatogonia?
1 spermaatogonia-> 2 daughter cells (one maintains germ cell stock and other undergoes further division)
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What are the three stages of spermatogenesis?
Mitosis, Meiosis, Spermiogenesis
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Why do spermatids appear in clusters?
They share cytoplasm
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What are the 3 steps of spermiogenesis?
Migration, Acrosome formation & Tail assembly
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What occurs during migration (spemiogenesis)?
Nucleus migrates to one end (the head), nucleus gets longer and chromatin (DNA and proteins) becomes dense
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What occurs during acrosome formation (spemiogenesis)?
Golgi appartaus migrates towards the head and elongates to cover the nucleus, acrosome is formed
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What occurs during tail assembly of spermiogenesis?
elongation of cytoplasm and plasma membrane, microtubule core emrges from centriole, 9 (edge) + 2 (core) array of microtubules, ATP from mitochondria in mid-piece, ATP gives sperm motility
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What occurs during days 64-74 after 1st mitotic division?
Cytoplasmic bridges breakdown, spermatozoa is released into the lumen, mature but non-motile (carried by semineferous tubule fluid into epididymis, mature in the epididymis (~12 days)
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What are the functions of sertoli cells?
Form walls of lumen, form blood-testes barrier, regulate supply nutrients, phagocytose cellular debris, secrete semineferous tubule fluid, regulate spermatogenesis (hormonal)
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Where is testosterone produced and secreted from(males)?
Leydig cells
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Where is inhibin produced and secreted from(males)?
Sertoli cells
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What hormones are produced by the anterior pituitary glands (male?
Luteinising hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
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Where is Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) produced/secreted from?
The hypothalamus
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Where is androgen binding protein (ABP) secreted from?
Sertoli cells
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What cells does FSH act on?
Sertoli cells
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What cells does LH act on?
Leydig cells
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How many spermatozoa are produced a day?
6.5million/ gram of testis
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What are the three stages of male sexual function?
Erection, emission & ***********
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What does activation of mechanoreceptors in the penis do?
Increases parasympathetic tone and decreases sympathetic tone
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Where is mucus secreted form in males?
Bulbourethral glands
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How does viagra work?
Switches off phosphodiesterase type-5 so erection lasts longer
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What is the cellular basis of relaxation of smooth muscle in erectile tissue?
Parasympathetic post-ganglionic neurones release acetylcholine which binds to muscarinic receptors on endothelial cells of erectile tissue, endothelial cells then release nitric oxide (NO) which diffuses into smooth muscle (triggers events in cell)
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what makes up semen?
Spermatozoa, seminal fluid, prostatic fluid, mucus
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What happens during emission?
Sympathetic activity is increased which makes the smooth muscle contract and semen is transferred to the urethra
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How much semen is released per ***********?
2-6mL
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What produces an ***********?
Increase in sympathetic activity, rhythmic contractions of the ductal system, contraction of skeletal muscle at base of penis
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What elements does seminal vesicles contain?
Fructose, prostaglandins and semenogelin
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What is/are the function/s of fructose in seminal fluid?
Main energy source of sperm after ***********
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What is/are the function/s of prostaglandins in seminal fluid?
Stimulate emission and ***********, spermatozoa motility and contraction of the female ductal system
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What is/are the function/s of semenogelin in seminal fluid?
Coagulation of semen into a gel-like mass after ***********, helps semen stick to vagina wall
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What percentage of semen is seminal fluid?
50-65%
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What percentage of semen is prostatic fluid?
15%
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Why is prostatic fluid highly alkaline?
Neutralises acidic environment of epididymis and vagina (sperm most motile at pH 6.0)
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What is the function of prostate specific antigen (PSA)?
Breaks the semen clot formed by semenogelin
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Why are leydig cells often observed clustered around blood vessels?
They release testosterone
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How do sertoli cells allow spermatocytes to migrate towards the lumen?
Tight junctions break down and remodel
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The cells generated following three mitotic divisions of a single spermatogonium are known as?
Primary spermatocytes
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What is the shortest part of the urethra?
Membraneous urethra
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What is the order of structures through which spermatozoa move through the male reproductive tract?
seminiferous tubules -- epididymis -- vas deferens -- ejaculatory duct -- prostatic urethra
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Where would you expect to find spermatozoa and seminal fluid but NOT prostatic fluid?
Ejaculatory duct
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What are the effects of inhibin?
Inhibitory effect on anterior pituitary and decreases levels of FSH
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What are the effects of ABP?
Binds to testosterone and enhances the local concentration of testosterone which increases stimulatory effect on spermatogenesis
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What is a vasectomy?
A vasectomy is when the vas deferens are cut/tied which prevents the spermatozoa being transferred to the ejaculatory duct
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What happens to the volume of semen after a vasectomy?
As spermatozoa only make up 2-5% of semen, the volume of semen after an *********** is barely changed. The semen will still contain mucus, seminal fluid and prostatic fluid
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What are the functions of the female reproductive system?
Gamete production, fertilisation, implantation, pregnancy and parturition
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What are the 4 regions of the uterus?
Fundus (superior part), body (major part), isthmus (narrow region) and cervix (projects into the vagina)
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What are the 3 layers of the uterus?
Perimetrium, myometrium (thick layer of smooth muscle) and endometrium (inner most layer)
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What are the 2 layers of endometrium? which layer is shed during menstruation?
Basal layer (not shed) and functional layer (shed)
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Where are oestrogen and progesterone produced?
Ovaries
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What are other names for Fallopian tubes?
Oviducts, uterine tubes
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What are the 3 parts of the Fallopian tubes?
Isthmus (narrow, short, penetrates uterus), ampulla (major part) and infundibulum (fimbrae to help sweep up products of ovulation)
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How long are fallopian tubes?
~13cm
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What is the function of the fallopian tubes?
Connects ovaries to uterus
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Where in the Fallopian tubes does fertilisation occur?
Ampulla
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In oogenesis when does mitosis occur?
In first 2-5 months of life
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How many primary oocytes are produced in mitosis?
6-7million
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in oogensesi when does maturation occur?
At birth
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How many primary oocytes remain after the maturation stage?
2 million
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What are the 3 phases of the ovarian cycle?
Follicular phase, ovulatory phase and luteal phase
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What days does the follicular phase occur?
days 1-10
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What happens to the dominant and non-dominant (atretic) follicles during the follicular phase of the ovarian cycle?
Dominant follicles grow to 12-16mm, non-dominant follicles degenerate
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What is the zona pellucida?
A glycoprotein coat that surrounds a primary oocyte
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What is the structural difference between primordial and primary oocytes?
Primordial are flattened, primary are cuboidal
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What is the function of the zona pellucida?
They are species-specific so that different animals can't reproduce
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What is the structural difference between primary and secondary oocytes?
Primary have a single layer of follicular cells while secondary have multiple layers of follicular cells
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Why does the corpus luteum have a collection of blood cells at its core?
It secretes hormones (lots of progesterone and a little oestrogen)
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What are Graafian follicles?
Mature follicles
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What happens to the corpus luteum if there is no fertilisation?
It degenerates
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What happens if multiple oocytes are fertilised?
Multiple births (non-identical)
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What days does the ovulatory phase of the ovarian cycle occur and what happens in this phase?
Days 11-14, single mature follicle ruptures, oocyte is released, ovulation occurs, product of ovulation captured by fimbrae
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What is corona radiata?
cells that surround the oocyte
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What days does the luteal phase of the ovarian cycle occur and what happens during this phase?
days 15-28, mature follicle collapses back into ovary which forms the corpus luteum (endocrine gland)
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What triggers ovulation?
Surge of LH
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What impacts do oestrogen have on the body?
Muscular skeletal growth, secondary sex characteristics (breasts, pubic hair), libido
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Why do oestrogen levels decline in the ovulatory phase?
Due to damage to the mature follicle
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why are all hormone levels low at the end of the Ovarian cycle?
Oestrogen has a positive feedback and progesterone has a negative feedback but because there are higher levels of progesterone negative feedback wins and therefore FSH and LH levels decrease
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What is the purpose of the uterine cycle?
Preparing uterus for implantation of embryo
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What are the 3 phases of the uterine cycle?
Menstrual phase, proliferative phase, Secretory phase
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What happens during the menstrual phase of the uterine cycle and when does it occur?
Corpus luteum degenerates,(oestrogen and progesterone levels decrease - triggers menstrual phase), endometrial arteries kink (blood supply is cut off) and functional layer is shed as menstrual fluid. occurs days 1-5
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What occurs in the proliferative phase of the uterine cycle and what days does this phase occur?
Development of secondary to mature follicle, oestrogen levels are increased, functional layer regenerates from basal layer, functional layer thicken, endometrial glands develop, inner surface of uterus is coated in a thick mucus. (days 6-14)
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What days does the secretory phase of the uterine cycle occur and what happens in this phase?
Days 15-28, corpus luteum develops (increased progesterone and a little oestrogen production), functional layer thickens, endometrial glands grow, endometrium secrets glycogen(energy for embryo) and uterus is primed for implantation (thick, energy)
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What happens when the female is exposed to psychogenic or mechanical stimuli?
Increase in parasympathetic tone (dilation of arterioles- swelling of external genetalia, vaginal epithelial cells-mucus secretion)
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What factors enable fertilisation?
sperm motility, thrashing of tails, optimal pH(6.0), seminal fluid(fructose and prostaglandins), thinning of cervical mucus(high levels of oestrogen at ovulation) and uterine contractions (******)
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What is the transport time range for sperm to reach ampulla?
5 mins to 3 hours
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What are the 4 steps in fertilisation?
Penetration of the corona radiata, binding to the zona pellucida, acrosome reaction, binding to oocyte membrane
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What is polyspermy? what are the consequences?
When the nucleus of more than one spermatozoa fertilises an oocyte, it leads to a higher number of chromosomes which leads to disorders such as down syndrome
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How does fast block prevent polyspermy?
Na+ channels in oocyte open, Na+ flows devents further sperm binding. own conc. gradient into the oocyte, depolarisation (-70mV->10mV), pr
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How does slow block prevent polyspermy?
Increase in the permeability of the oocyte to Ca2+, Ca2+ flows in, this triggers exocytosis of the enzyme from the cortical granules, enzymes hydrolyse the glycoproteins of the zona pellucida, within 30 seconds the barrier becomes impermeable
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What are the stages of implantation and what days do they occur?
Zygote (day 1), Morula (day 4), Blastocyst (day 7), pregnancy
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Where does implantation usually occur?
fundus or body of uterus
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What is a tubal pregnancy?
Pregnancy in the fallopian tube
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What is an abdominal pregnancy? why are they possible
Pregnancy in the abdominal cavity (often large intestine), blastocyst has all the pregnancy needs, endometrium is optimal but not vital
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How long after ovulation is implantation complete?
14 days
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What role does Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) have in implantation? where is it secreted from?
Stimulates corpus luteum to continue to produce oestrogen and progesterone, secreted from the trophoblast
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Why is the cervix inflexible during most of the pregnancy?
High concentration of collagen fibres
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What happens when a women's 'water breaks'?
Amniotic sac ruptures
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What happens to hormone levels in the final month of pregnancy?
progesterone decrease and oestrogen increases
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What are the effects of oestrogen in the final moth of pregnancy?
increased expression of oxytocin receptors on smooth muscle, increased productionof enzymes to break down collagen fibres to increase the flexibility of the cervix
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What are the effects of relaxin in the final month of pregnancy?
Increased production of enzyme to breakdown collagen fibres, increased growthof cervix and vagina, increased flexibility of joint between pelvic bones
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What triggers labour?
Baby's head pushing on cervix
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where is oxytocin released from?
Posterior pituitary
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What happens to the mammary gland at puberty?
Increased oestrogen and progesterone secretion make them branch and grow (breasts grow)
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What happens to the mammary gland during pregnancy?
Secretion of oestrogen, progesteron, human placental lactogen (hPL)- secreted by the placenta and prolactin - hypertrophy of breasts
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What are the two stages of lactation? what are they mediated by?
Milk let down/milk ejection- milk transferred from alveoli to lactiferous ducts, contraction of myoepithelial cells in alveoli squeezes milk into ducts, milk production - sustains milk until weaning. both mediated by neuroendocrine reflex
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What is the make up of initial milk(colostrum)?
Low in fats and CHOs, high in protein, vitamin d, immunoglobulins
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Why do the endometrial glands often appear irregularly-shaped at the secretory phase of the uterine cycle?
They increase in surface area to allow for secretion of glycogen
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What is the primary functions of the respiratory system?
Oxygen supply and CO2 removal
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What is oxygen consumption at rest?
4mL/min/kg of body weight
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What is oxygen consumption during strenuous exercise?
40-90mL/min/kg of body weight
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define pulmonary ventilation
Breathing(movement of air into and out of lungs)
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Define external respiration
exchange of gases between lung and cardiovascular system
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Define gas transport
delivery of O2 to peripheral tissues, removal of CO2 from peripheral tissues
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Define interanl respiration
Exchange of gases between blood and peripheral tissues
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What is the function of mucus secreting cells?
to trap particles in the air
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What is the role of cilia in the nasal cavity?
To beat mucus and and particles to the back of the throat to be swallowed
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What are vibrissae?
hair-like structures to trap bigger particles
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What are the purpose of blood vessels in the nasal cavity?
To warm the air being breathed in
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What is the olfactory mucosa responsible for?
sense of smell
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Does the oral or nasal cavity have a larger diameter(less resistance)?
Oral cavity
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What are the 3 sections of the pharynx
Nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx
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How many individual components of cartilage make up the larynx?
9
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What are the functions of the larynx?
Links pharynx to the oesophagus, enables air to the trachea, directs food to the oesophagus
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How big is the trachea?
12cm long, 2.5cm thick
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what is the function of the trachea?
Connects the larynx with the bronchi
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How many c-shaped cartilaginous rings does the trachea contain?
16-20
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What is the purpose of the c-shaped rings in the trachea?
prevent the trachea from collapsing while still allowing large food particles to temporarily poke into the trachea
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what is the function of cilia in the trachea?
Beats mucus up into the pharynx (mucociliary clearance)
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What does the thoracic cavity contain?
heart, lungs, oesophagus and major blood vessels
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What makes up the thoracic cavity?
Rib cage, intercostal muscles and diaphragm
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What are the volumes of the lungs
5-7L
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Which organ occupies most of the thoraci cavity
the lungs
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What area of the alveoli allow for gas exchange (both lungs combined)?
80m squared
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What are the 2 layers of the plurae?
Parietal pluera (outer/ribs), visceral pluera (inner/lungs)
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Where is the plurae found?
Between the walls of the thoracic cavity and the lungs
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what is the function of plueral fluid?
allows layers to slide but makes them hard to pull apart
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What is the major constituent of the lung volume?
Bronchial tract
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What is the function of the bronchial tract?
Transports air to alveoli
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What are the brochial tract generations?
Bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles, respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs
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Which zone of the bronchial tarct delivers air to deeper parts of the lungs?
Conducting zone
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Which zone in the bronchial tract is responsible for gas exchange?
Respiratory zone
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Which bronical tract generations make up the conducting zone?
Bronchi, bronchioles and terminal brochioles
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Which generations of the bronchial tract make up the respiratory zone?
Respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts and alveolar sacs
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What is the role of the pulmonary arteries?
Deliver deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle
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what is the role of bronchial arteries?
Delivers oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the conducting zone
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What is pulmonary ventilation enabled by?
Changes in volume & changes in pressure
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What is Boyle's Law?
Within a closed system the pressure exerted by a gas is inversely proportional to its volume
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What causes inspiration during quiet breathing?
Contraction of diaphragm, diaphragm flattens and volume of thoracic cavity increases
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What causes inspiration during physical exertion?
Contraction of intercostal muscles lifts rib cage and separates ribs, volume of thoracic cavity is further increased
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What causes expiration during quiet breathing?
relaxation of diaphragm, elastic recoil of lung and thoracic cavity,volume of thoracic cavity is decreased
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When is expiration an active process?
During physical exertion
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What causes expiration during physical exertion?
Contraction of intercostal muscles, lowers rib cage and pulls ribs together, abdominal muscles contract, pushes abdominal organs up, volume of thoracic cavity decreases
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What is interpleural pressure?
Pressure in the pleural cavity
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How does interpleural pressure compare to atmospheric pressure?
Interpleural pressure is ~5 cm H20 below atmospheric pressure
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What is normal atmospheric pressure?
0 cm H20
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What are the effects of interpleural pressure?
elastic recoil of lungs, tendency of chest wall to expand, high surface tension produced by pleural fluid
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What are the functions of interpleural pressure?
Keeps lungs inflated, ensures lungs follow changes in thoracic cavity
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What is pneumothorax and what is the consequence?
Hole in the lung, air flows in, interplueral pressure increase, lung collapses
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What is Poiseuille's law?
R=(8/pi) x (nL/r^4)
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Where is there the most airway resistance?
Medium sized bronchioles (gen 7)
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Why do small and terminal bronchioles have low resistance?
Because they are so numerous
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What ways can airway resistance be modified physiologically?
Parasympathetic division decreases the diameter of airways (increases resistance), sympathetic division increases the diameter of airways (decreases resistance)
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What ways is airway resistance modified clinically?
Asthma and Chest infections(massive mucus secretion)
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How does the extension of lungs change in older adults or cystic fibrosis sufferers?
Lungs are more difficult to dilate and require more muscular force and larger pressure changes
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Why is alveolar surface tension important?
reduces chance of alveoli collapsing, decreases amount of pressure needed to inflate alveoli, increases compliance so less energy is needed for inspiration
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what is surfactant and where is it synthesised?
Detergent-like lipoprotein that reduces alveolar surface tension, synthesised by type 2 alveolar cells
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What is the difference between restrictive and obstructive lung disease?
Restrictive: decreased volume, obstructive: decreased flow
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What is tidal volume (TV)?
volume of air in a single normal inspiration or expiration (~500mL)
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What is Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
Volume of air that can be inhaled after a normal inspiration (~3100mL)
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What is expiratory reserve volume (ERV)?
Volume of air that can be exhaled after a normal expiration (~1200mL)
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What is residual volume(RV)?
Volume of air left in the lungs after a full expiration (~1200mL)
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What is Total lung capacity(TLC) and how is it calculated?
Total amount of air in lungs after a maximal inspiration (~6000mL) - TLC= TV+IRV+ERV+RV
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What is vital capacity (VC)? and how is it calculated?
Maximal volume of air that can be expired after a maximal inspiration (4800mL) - VC=TV+IRV+ERV
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What is inspiratory capacity(IC) and how is it calculated?
Volume of air that can be inhaled after a normal expiration (~3600mL) - IC = TV+IRV
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How is respiratory minute volume (RMV) calculated?
TV x RR
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What is the range of diameter of alveoli?
75-300(lungs inflated)micrometres
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What are type 1 alveoli cells and what percentage of of alveoli surface area do they make up?
thin, flat epithelial cells that are supported by the basement membrane, they make up 90% of SA
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How do type 1 and type 2 alveoli cells differ?
Type 1: flat, spread out, type 2: cuboidal and clustered
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Where are alveolar macrophages found and what is their role?
Found in the inner surface of alveoli, phagocytose foreign particles
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Where are pulmonary capillaries found and what is their diameter?
located between alveoli and 8-10 micrometers
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What is the respiratory membrane made up of, what is it its diameter and what is its function
Made up of 2 layes of type 1 alveoli cells, 0.15-0.3 micrometers and it enables gas exchange
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What is Dalton's Law?
The total pressure of any gas mixture is the sum of the pressure of each gas in the mixture if it were present on its own in the same volume
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What are the percentages of gas in inspired air?
N2= 78.6%, O2= 20.9%, CO2= 0.04% and H20 = 0.5%
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What is standard pressure?
760mmHg
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What is Henry's Law?
When a gas is in contact with the surface of a liquid, the amount of gas which will go into solution is proportional to the partial pressure of that gas and the solubility of that gas in solution (V=s.P)
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What % of O2 is carried by binding to haemoglobin?
98.5%
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How many polypeptide chains make up haemoglobin?
4
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How is CO2 transported in the blood?
7-10% dissolved in plasma, 20-30% as HbCO2 and 60-70% transported as bicarbonate ions
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What is hypercapnia and what does it cause?
increased CO2 pressure: it cause an increase in hydrogen ion concentration, increased depth and frequency of ventilation (Hyperventilation) and a decrease in CO2 pressure
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Hoes does increasing arterial pressure affect ventilation?
Increase depth and frequency of ventilation (hyperventilation) and a decrease in pH
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What receptors detect changes in arterial pH?
Peripheral chemoreceptors
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Is oxygen or CO2 more sensitive to changes in arterial pressure?
CO2
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which receptors are sensitive to changes in H+ concentration
central chemoreceptors
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What are the 3 medullary respiratory centres?
Dorsal respiratory group (DRG), Ventral respiratory group (VRG) and pons respiratory centres
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What are the 2 pons respiratory centres
pneumotaxic centre and apneustic centre
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What is the function of the Dorsal respiratory group?
Drive motoneurones, basic rhythm of inspiration
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What is the function of the ventral respiratory group?
Control motoneurones (diaphragm and external intercostal muscles - inspiration, internal intercostals & abdominal muscles - forced expiration and upper airways - reducing airway resistance)
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Where are aortic bodies found?
In the aortic arch
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where are the carotid bodies found?
In the branching of the carotid arteries
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Card 2

Front

What are male gametes called? (single and plural)

Back

Spermatozoa (plural), spermatozoon (single)

Card 3

Front

What are female gametes called? (single and plural)

Back

Preview of the front of card 3

Card 4

Front

What are male gonads called? (single and plural)

Back

Preview of the front of card 4

Card 5

Front

What are female gonads called? (single and plural)

Back

Preview of the front of card 5
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