Linguistics and Mode Terms

Attributive Adjective

Adjective which come BEFORE the noun (e.g. the RED balloon)

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Predicative Adjective

Adjective which comes AFTER the noun (e.g. the music was ASTOUNDING)

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Comparative

Compare the degrees of a noun, usually with 'er' at the end or 'more' in front. (e.g. Better is the comparative of Good)

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Superlative

Shows something as the highest degree, usually with 'st' at the end or 'most' in front. (e.g. Best is the superlative of Good)

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Dynamic Verb

Physical or mental actions (e.g. Run)

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Stative Verbs

A condition or a mental state with no obvious action. (e.g. Believe)

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Main Verbs

Single verb in a clause or sentence which expresses the main meaning. (e.g. I was THINKING about it)

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Auxiliary Verbs

'Helping' verbs placed in front of the main verbs (e.g. I WAS/MUST HAVE BEEN thinking about you)

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Primary Verbs

The only verbs which can act as auxiliary and main verbs (e.g. be, do, have, is, and are)

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Modal Auxiliary Verbs

Used for politeness and degrees of possibilities and can only be used in conjunction of a main verb. (e.g. Can, Could, Will, Would, Shall, Should, May, Might, Must, and Ought to)

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Infinitive Verbs

The base form of verbs and always have 'to' in front of them. (e.g. to eat)

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Continuous Verbs

Presents the activity as continuing by adding an auxiliary verb and an 'ing' suffix to the main verb. (e.g. I AM LAUGHING)

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Active Voice

When the focus of the sentence is on the person of the thing (agent) performing the verb. (e.g. The teacher a marked the sample paper)

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Passive Voice

When the focus is on the person or the thing to which something has been done. (e.g. A sample paper has been marked [by the teacher]) The subject may be omitted completely, diverting the attention from them.

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Adverbs

Gives us more information about the verb, adjective and other adverbs. They perform the same function for the verb as adjective do for nouns. Many are formed by adding the 'ly' suffix (e.g. She SLOWLY ran). Functions: manner, time and place.

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Proper Nouns

Begin with capital letter because they refer to specific people or places. (e.g. China)

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Common Nouns

These refer to the TYPES of people, places and emotions.

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Concrete Nouns

Exists physically (e.g. Chair and Table)

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Abstract Nouns

Without a physical existence (e.g. Happiness and Guilt)

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Collective Nouns

Usually a group of animals people and objects (e.g. Crowd or Flock)

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Possessive Pronouns

Shows possession (This is HIS). But when placed before a noun it becomes a DETERMINER (It's HIS bag)

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Reflexive Pronouns

Shows that Object and subject are the same. (e.g. SHE did it to HERSELF)

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Demonstrative Pronouns

Can be classified as pointers and include words such as this, those, these, that. When placed in front of noun, becomes determiner.

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Relative Pronouns

Linking words in a sentence and are always placed immediately after a noun to which they refer to (e.g. A girl, WHO has many admirers)

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Interrogative Pronouns

Pronouns used when asking questions (e.g. Who, What, Which, Whose)

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Indefinite Pronouns

Pronouns which don't refer to specific persons or things (e.g. Everything, noone, someone, anything)

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1st Person Pronoun

I, We, Me, Us

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2nd Person Pronoun

You

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3rd Person Pronoun

He, She, It, They, Him, Her, Them

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Co-ordinating Conjunctions

Links 2 main clauses. (e.g. For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So)

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Subordinating Conjunctions

Connects subordinate clause to main clause (e.g. Although, because, Unless, until)

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Prepositions

Indicate how one thing is related to something else. Shows the relationship between the noun that comes before it and something else in the sentence. Functions: Directions (Into), Time (after), Position (under)

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Definite and Indefinite Articles

Definite: 'the' Indefinite: 'a' or 'an'

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Intensifiers

'very', 'really', 'so'

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Noun Phrase

The noun is the headword, or it can just be the noun itself joined by a pre or post modifier. (e.g. The empty HOUSE)

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Verb Phrase

The verb is the head word but often involves a main verb and auxiliaries (e.g. I should've PASSED the door)

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Clauses

Unit of sentence, can be made up of: Subject, Verb, Object, Adverbial, and Complement. Types: S+V, S+V+O, S+V+C, S+V+O+O etc.

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Main Clause

Can stand alone and still make perfect sense (e.g. I ate)

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Co-ordinate Clause

2 or more main clauses joined by a co-ordinating conjunction (e.g. I ate and I fed the dog)

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Subordinating Clause

Cannot stand alone and has to be with a main clause in order to make sense. Uses subordinating conjunctions. (e.g. I ate pie which was delicious)

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Minor Sentences

Doesn't have the subject+verb combination but are complete and make sense (e.g. Be good) Can also be in the form of interjections (one words such as, 'ok')

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Simple Sentences

Always has a subject+verb (e.g. The rain falls)

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Compound Sentences

2 co-ordinating clauses joined by co-ordinating conjunction. (I fed my dog and went to the shop)

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Complex Sentences

A main clause and subordinate clause joined by subordinating conjunction (The baby cried for food unless he was afraid)

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Compound-Complex Sentences

Has at least 2 co-ordinate clauses connected by co-ordinating conjunction AND 1 subordination clause with subordinating conj. (I took an apple and threw it, which was stupid)

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Declarative Sentence

Statements. Gives us information.

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Imperative Sentence

These give order, advice, direction, or instructions (e.g. Sit down)

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Interrogative Sentence

These ask questions

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Exclamative Sentence

They have to end in exclamation mark and convey a force of feeling!

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Prefixes

Attached to the front of the word and change meaning (e.g. SUBmarine or Ungrateful)

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Suffixes

Added at the end of the word and change the word's class and meaning (e.g. LegalLY)

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Coining

Describes how words are invented and usually occurs through affixing or removing affixed morphemes.

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Clipping

(e.g. Telephone to Phone, or Internet to net)

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Compounds

New words are formed by putting 2 free morphemes together (e.g. ManKind, ToothBrush)

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Backformation

Word look like Suffix but is actually a free morpheme (e.g. EDITor, WRITEr)

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Blend

2 words are fused to create a new one (e.g. Shopaholic)

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Old English

Much of our lexis comes from this and are generally simple everyday words. Usually monosyllabic and includes "the/lk" sounds, mostly used informally in spoken mode. (e.g. Milk, up, with)

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French and Latin

our language incorporate many words from this and are usually polysyllabic, complex and formal. (e.g. pedestrian, maternal and explicit)

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Loan Words

Words borrowed from other countries and cultures (e.g. Shampoo is Hindu)

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Neologisms

Lexis also has to adapt when society advances (e.g. Email, laptop)

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Informal Lexis

Consists of Shorter sentences, less complex and more monosyllabic. Much of it will be from Old English.

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Formal Lexis

The sentence and clause structure is going to be more complex and Latinate.

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Denotation

Being clear and getting your meaning over in an informative and straightforward way. (e.g. The balloon is red)

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Connotation

The associations we have with words, what they remind us of and the feelings they convey. (e.g. Red could mean danger or love)

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Implication

Where language is used to suggest rather than to say it directly. (e.g. What are you doing after work - implies that the speaker is inviting someone to go out)

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Ambiguity

This is where we can interpret the meaning in many ways because of the way it's been put together. (e.g. The girl could not bear children could mean that she hated children or could not conceive)

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Semantic Field

A group of words coordinated according to the area they belong to.

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Synonyms

Words with similar meaning, but varies on audience context and geography (e.g. Home, Pad, Place)

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Antonyms

Opposite meanings (e.g. Hot/Cold)

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Hypernyms

A general word which has a hyponym attached (e.g. Lessons: Biology, Maths)

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Similes

A comparison (Uses 'like' or 'as')

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Metaphor

A figure of speech in which a word or phrase is applied to an object or action to which it is not literally applicable.

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Personification

A type of metaphor where the object is given human qualities.

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Metonymy

Using a part of something to describe the whole (e.g. The crown for the Monarchy)

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Oxymorons

Draw together 2 opposing ideas to create new concept (e.g. Bittersweet)

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Idiom

A word or group of words whose meaning does not match the literal meaning. (e.g. It's a bomb could mean its a failure) Slang.

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Jargon

Work-related lexis. Used within different occupations and more formal, so doesn't always make sense to everyone.

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Euphemism

A mild or indirect word or expression.

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Dysphemism

Derogatory or unpleasant term.

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Repetition

Serves to impress the thought on the brain.

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3-part List

Brain accepts 3 points at it's optimum capacity and it is enough to build climax.

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Rhetorical Questions

These do not require or desire answers.

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Hyperbole

Uses exaggeration to make a point.

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Accent

Specific way words are pronounced according to region.

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Dialect

Language variety of geographical or social subgroup. May include specific words or grammatical features.

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Discourse

A continuous stretch of language that is longer than a sentence.

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Discourse Marker

Word or phrase to indicate change of topic (e.g. Anyway)

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Elision

Missing out a sound or a part of a word (e.g. Gonna)

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Ellipsis

Missing out a word in a sentence (e.g. Nice try)

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False Starts

When the speaker changes track.

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Idiolect

Individual style of speaking made up of choices involving all frameworks.

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Micro Pause

A period of silence less than a second (.)

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Minimal Response

A single word or non-verbal filler used in response (e.g. yeah)

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Non-fluency Features

Features of spoken language that are due to spontaneity and speed of normal speech.

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Non-fluent Repetition

When a speaker repeats himself deliberately for effect.

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Non-Standard English

Words or phrases which are not normally found in written text. (e.g. ain't)

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Non-verbal Filler

A filler that isn't a word, also known as voice pause. (e.g. em, er)

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Received Pronunciation

Standard accent in UK used by newscasters.

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Self Repair

When the speaker corrects himself.

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Conversational Implicature

The process of implying things in a conversation which are not spelt out literally.

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Diectics

Pointing words (e.g. These, those, this, that)

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Adjacency Pairs

Form of turn-taking made of two utterances, the second a responding utterance.

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Politeness Principle by Lakoff

The idea that we use strategies to make our listener feel good and to minimise the effect of an impositions we may make on them. (e.g. 'You couldn't open the door for me would you?' rather than 'open the door')

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Face Theory by Goffman

Our 'face' is our public self-image. Listeners and speakers tend to accept each other for what they claim to be.

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Face-threatening Acts

Not accepting or respecting each others role or 'face'

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Positive Politeness Strategies (Protecting the 'face' by politeness by Brown and Levinson '87)

Being complementary about someone before asking him or her to do something.

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Negative Politeness Strategies (Protecting the 'face' by politeness by Brown and Levinson '87)

Soften the imposition. May request a question pessimistically (e.g. I don't suppose you could open the window for me?). Minimises the imposition and puts themselves as the inferior.

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Convergence

When a person's speech style becomes more like those of the people being spoken to.

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Divergence

When the persons speech style becomes less like those being spoken to.

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Types of Turn-taking

Competitive (e.g. 2 people fencing), Cooperative (e.g. 2 people dancing), Directive (e.g. Holding the floor), Hierarchical.

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Ways of Allocating Turns

Interrogatives, Provocative declaratives, Naming other participants, Topic changes, backchannel behaviour.

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Phatic Interaction (Interactional)

Social function, maintain rapport, no factual information.

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Referential Interaction (Transactional)

Message function, conveying information.

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Accommodation

Adapting one's speech

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Backchannel behaviour

Support or feedback to the speaker.

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Closed Questions

Question that limits the possible range of responses.

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Interruption

Beginning a turn while someone is speaking in a competitive way.

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Latch

Turns that join and follow immediately after another without pausing.

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Mirroring

When speaker uses words or phrases used by previous speaker.

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Monitoring Device

A feature used to check that someone is listening.

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Negative face need

The need to be allowed independence

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Negative politeness

Recognises independence or status of the person talking to.

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Off Record

Dropping a hint and saying something without really saying it.

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Open Questions

Questions which allow range of possibilities.

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Positive face need

need to be liked and be part of a group.

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Positive Politeness

Strategies that emphasise social closeness.

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3-part exchange

3 linked utterances: Initiation, response, then feedback

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Topic management

Control of conversation in speaking and topic.

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Written Mode

Received via eyes (graphological features), Permanent, Impersonal, Distant.

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Spoken Mode

Received via ears (prosodic aspects of speech), Temporary, Personal, Immediate.

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Channel

The way text is received.

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Mode

The way text is delivered.

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Continuums

Helps asses spoken and written characteristics (look up Leech, Deuchar, and Hoogenrad)

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CMC

Computer Mediated Communication

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Synchronous

Both or all participants are present at the same time.

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Asynchronous

Communication in which all participants do not need to present simultaneously.

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Deletion

Missing out letters, often vowels. (e.g. ppl)

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Clipping

Missing start or end letters (e.g. join)

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Letter Homophobe

Using one letter which sounds like the word (e.g. u)

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Number Homophobe

Using a number that sounds like the word (e.g. 2morrow)

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Phonetic Spelling

Spelling the word the way it sounds (e.g. fone)

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Acronym

Using initials but can be pronounced (e.g. LOL)

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Initiation

using initials but read individually as the actual word it presents. (e.g. BTW)

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Deviant Spelling

using non standard spelling for effect, without necessarily reducing number of letters (e.g. boi, woz)

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Hudson's Dimensions

Permanent - Ephemeral, Formal - Informal, Standard - non standard, Low interaction - High Interaction, Message - social, Context dependent - Independent.

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Bound morpheme

A morpheme that can only have one meaning when attached to a free morpheme (e.g. 'ed' to show past tense)

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Free Morpheme

A morpheme that can stand independently as a meaningful unit. (e.g. dog)

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Linguistics and Mode Terms

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