Leadership

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What are the theories?
trait/ personality, situation, behaviour, contingency, transactional & translational
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What is leadership?
persuading & directing group members towards attainment of a common goal
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who said it?
Hogan et al., 1994 in Hogg & Vaughan 2014
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why are they leading?
great ideas, people follow, able to translate ideas into action & manage groups
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critical thinking point 1?
is persuasion different from domination?
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point 2?
are leaders only leaders if we define them to be and share their visions/ goals as a collective?
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point 3?
does power = leader?
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Bad/ good is different to
effective/ ineffective
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an effective leader doesn't always...
represent a safe or ethical one
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an effective leader is
successful in setting realistic goals and influencing others
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a good leader has
integrity, competency (Hogan & Kaiser, 2005), morality with outcomes directed towards welfare (Hogan, Curphy & Hogan, 1994)
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a bad/ dangerous leader...
devalues others, intolerant to criticism, grandiose sense of entitlement (Mayer,1993), poor interpersonal skills, lack of care
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An example of a good leader?
Crobyn
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why?
competent, integrity, and directed towards welfare, outward thinking towards community
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example of a bad leader?
Trump, inward thinking and sense of entitlement
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arguably is an effective leader (trump) why?
not in a way we think is good but is successful in setting realistic goals and getting people to follow
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So what roles are involved in making an effective leader?
role of traits, individual differences and personality
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what does personality/ traits question
are we born leaders? do certain personality characteristics deem us more effective?
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what about behaviour?
does our behaviour determine whether we will be a leader? if so, does this mean it can be learnt?
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situation/ contingency says that effective leadership depends on
both situation and leadership style - are some styles more suited to specific situations? therefore is effectiveness contingent on the situation?
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What theory is mentioned for personality/ trait theories?
Great person theory
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what is the belief in the GPT?
born leaders, belief that leaders have distinct characteristic deeming them to be more capable leaders - born not made
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according to GPT why are leadership programmes pointless?
if you're not a born leader then you won't be effective
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what attributes are there in the GPT?
tall, attractive, charismatic, healthy, intelligent, talkative
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However each attribute can be critiqued, why?
e.g. healthy, intelligent may be developed and not innate
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why attractive and tall?
a lot of research says we like someone more when they are attractive - however this could be changing
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Where does the born leader idea come from?
Stogdill, 1948 and his characteristics of a leader
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how many characteristics?
5
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number 1?
capacity: intelligence, alertness, verbal facility, originality, judgement
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number 2?
achievement: scholarship, knowledge, athletic accomplishments
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number 3?
responsibility: dependability, initiative, persistence, aggressiveness, self-confidence, desire to excel
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number 4?
participation: activity, sociability, cooperation, adaptability, humour
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number 5?
status: socio-economic position, popularity
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however there is said to be an indirect...
correlation e.g. some argued to not always be born with it
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what's the opposing argument to that?
you have to be born with the ability to develop it
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why is popularity critiqued?
based on situation or something that changes over time
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it is all about personality but...
do they all support the idea that it's what we are born with? (critique)
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however the review of the research also found
a relationship with situation
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what can be classed as situation? i.e. what can influence effectiveness of leadership in relation to situation and trait?
mental level, status, skills, need & interest of followers, objectives to be achieved
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according to this it isn't just a case of what we are born with but also
about situation and this is whether the person is ineffective or not
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who's review and meta-analysis showed support for personality/ trait theories in 2002?
Judge et al.,
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Support for the trait theory?
specifically FFM of leadership
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FFM had multiple correlation of
.48 with leadership
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why do we need to be careful with correlation with the FFM?
it doesn't equal causation
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what does this mean?
meta-analyses gives support to TT, and TT suggests these traits = good and effective leader, but FFM doesn't actually show the causation
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although research has shown P to be stable, what has opposing research shown?
once people are in charge it may be the case that their personality changes, also a lot to say P changes over time
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we are still unsure if personality effects leadership
or leadership affects personality
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there are also correlations with...
lower order personality traits e.g. LOC and self-esteem, Judge et al., 2002
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Do traits reliably predict an effective leader? every time?
traits predict imagine and good/ bad leader but not necessarily effective/ ineffective
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what is imbedded in research?
we look at people more positively when they are more attractive
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if traits are not group or rank ordered
how do they relate?
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causal direction? e.g.
personality -> leadership or leadership -> personality - don't know which effects which
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Personality traits do not take...
situation/ context into account
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why is it important to do this in leadership?
because we need to think about smaller leadership positions e.g. supervisors etc.
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but why?
because it is important in some situations that people take control and some it is vital not to be controlling, have to be flexible/ adaptable
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what did Stogdill 1948 say?
leadership is a relationship that exists between people in social situation, and people who lead in one situation may not be good leader in other
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what does situation say?
anybody can be effective - it is solely dependent on the situation
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success will depend on what?
who they leading
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e.g.?
size & nature of group, whether group likes leader etc.
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What does the theory do for the leader?
removes full blame from the leader - e.g. cause in a difficult situation not because they are a bad leader
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Who do Hogg&Vaughan use as an example?
Churchill
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why Churchill?
known to be argumentative/ opinionated - didn't always have love of the public
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why was he suited for wartime?
his personality but wasn't suitable when situation changed
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What question is central to situation?
why would we need to re-elect/ change leadership if it was to do with P traits?
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who did a study to question situation, not trait?
Simonton 1980
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What did he analyse?
326 (victory) or 205 (kill ratio) land battles
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what was success via victory and kill ration predicted by?
situation predictors
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which were?
army size, divided command and date (predicted mostly predicted kill ratio) and personality predictors
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what're the personality predictors?
years experience, winning streaks, willingness to take offensive (predicted most predicted victory)
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e.g. leader effectiveness
have to look at outcome of task to view who most effective leader is
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Another theory is?
behaviour
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how leaders behave determines whether they are?
effective
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what do they say about behaviour?
it can be learnt/ made not necessarily born
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an effective style is...
developed, you can be one type and change to be a different one with correct training
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who devised the 3 categories with within-participants?
Lewin, Lippitt, & White (1993)
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what were they able to do?
rule out P/ trait effects, able to look solely at leadership style
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the leadership styles according to Lewin, Lippitt & White (1939)
autocratic, democratic, Laissez-faire
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Autocratic?
leaders are remote, only focused on task, very organisational in approach and give out orders to group members. make all decisions themselves
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Democratic?
leaders prepare to consider others' opinions, and will call for discussion and suggestions
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Laissez-faire?
leaders hardly intervene in the group. group does whatever they want, have little involvement in decision-making
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Who else spoke about behaviour?
Bales (1950)
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His types?
task specialist, and socio-emotional
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you cannot be
both!! you can't care about group as well as giving direction
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what is task-specialist?
like autocratic - generally involves/ giving direction
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what is socio-emotional?
like democratic - focused on feelings of group
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what's the difference?
they're just different names for them e.g. task-specialist is just autocratic
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what did the Ohio state leadership studies use to test for leadership?
the leader behaviour description questionnaire (LBDQ)
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info about the LBDQ...
initiating structure: task-orientated, ensure work towards goal
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what digit consider?
concern with welfare & harmonious relationships
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critique?
the two styles are independent of each other, can be high on both - this is an effective leader
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how can you be both?
can care about group and give direction, able to make sure they are working towards goal because they have good group dynamic
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summary? limitations to considering...
solely trait, situation, or behaviour
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if we aren't looking at how they work together then what are we missing?
a big part of it - we should be doing this because humans = complicated
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What is contingency theory?
a consideration of both behaviour and situation
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and?
the effectiveness of leadership
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behaviour/ style is...
contingent on the situation
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two styles suggested; leaders will either be:
1. task orientated leaders, 2. situation-orientated leaders
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What did Fielder (1964; 1967) say about the questions?
the way they came up with this was done upon questions & leadership style and asked q's about least preferred co-worked
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Least preferred co-worker scale (LPC):
High LPC and low LPC
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what is high LPC?
high - they've given more positive attributes e.g. pleasant friendly
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the ones who rated high were...
relationship-orientated - favoured member even if underperfroming
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what is low LPC?
rated more negatively e.g. unpleasant, rejecting etc.
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the ones who rated low were...
task-orientated - respondent harsh on poor co-worker
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Fielder's contingency theory: effectiveness of leader depends on
situations
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i.e. task orientated: best when
situational control is high or low (extremes)
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or in relationship/ situation-orientated or those that
scored highly on low: best when situational control is between the extreme - wasn't high or low, more control/ in the middle
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Contingency theory - from Hogg & Vaughan 2014
leader/ member relations most important then task structure
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then position power, then...
situational control
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leadership is dependent on...
situations
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contingency theory, low LPC =
task orientated
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contingency theory, high LPC =
situation orientated
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Fielder 1971 - however prediction is not
supported by lab studies
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Support: meta-analysis by Strube & Garcia 1981 -
examined 145 tests and 33 results based on contingency model
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the model is 'robust' in
predicting group performance
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who came up with the decision-making model?
Vroom & Yetton 1973
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what was the basis of it?
making decision about how to act was dependent on the situation & for decisions to be effective is dependent on situation
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however...
no single decision-making process fits every situation, no single one which is effective in every situation
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it isn't identical to
normative decision theory
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what is it based on?
autocratic, consultative and group decision-making model (collaboration)
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why was the model constructed?
to determine effective leadership across situations
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Vroom-Yetton decision model, the following are the most...
effective leadership styles when looking at the model below
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what does it give?
the scenario and what the most effective leader for that situation is
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start with question one then answer each all the way
to question 7
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Autocratic (A2): you consult your
team to obtain specific info that you need - you reflect then make final decision
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Consultative (C1): you inform your team of the situation and
ask for members' opinions individuals, but you don't bring the group together for a discussion, you make the final decision
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Consultative (C2): you get your team together for a group
discussion about the issues and seek their suggestions, decision is made by yourself
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Collaborative (G2): our work with your team to
reach a group consensus, your role is mostly facilitative, and you help team members to reach a decision that they all agree on
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A1&A2 autocratic - decision on prior info after
consulting team
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c1&C2 consultative - consult team individually or
as a group
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G2 Collaborative - work to
reach consensus
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transactional leadership is more modern and
more respected within leadership
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contingency theories do not account for
group relationships - doesn't account for how leaders interact with followers and vice versa
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transactional leadership focused on the
transaction between leaders and followers
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active leadership - motivates individuals through
reward and what their expectations are
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in a way is about self-interest - why??
if a leader approaches followers in terms of being able to boost self-interest then this is what is going to make a more effective leadership styles
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followers want to follow and praise/
approve of leader
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Leader-member exchange (LMX): one of the most popular areas in
leadership Graen & Uhl-Bien 1995
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Leaders differentiate among their subordinates and therefore
LMX may differ within the group e.g. differentiate between members of the group
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not always the case that everyone
is treated in the same way
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if there is large differentiation, some followers don't have
rewarding expectation with leader whereas others do
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Li & Liao
The difference between individuals who have low and high leadership exchange and role of engagement
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Those who have low member exchange engage a lot less but
won't be as low as when differentiation is high
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when we look at role engagement it has the same kind of pattern with
employee engagement - leadership performance is often looked at and value by engagement
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Transformational leadership... who spoke about it in 1878?
Burns
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what was said about transactional leaders?
they are motivated by reward (followers follow for self-interest)
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How do transformational leaders inspire?
individualised consideration, intellectual stimulation, charismatic & inspiring
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Individualised consideration?
mentoring/ coaching
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Intellectual stimulation?
innovation, new ideas, inspiring
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Charismatic and inspiring?
role model, team spirit, fits in a small bit with personality
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this is followed even when idea of reward isn't there - this arguable makes them
the most effective leader by far, they inspire without having to give them rewards e.g. not having to buy them in a way
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what's good about this approach?
looks at relationship between leader and leadership
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and also the interaction between
followers and members, and showing effectiveness personality etc.
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Wang et al., 2011 said it was one of the
more effective leadership styles
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Transformational and personality, model shows
the big 5 effects
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neuroticism isn't significant with
transformational leadership
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the only trait which directly linked leadership performance is
conscientiousness
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seems to be more a case that these P traits predict
leadership style, e.g. higher levels of extraversion seem to predict a more transformational leadership style
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this predictor is what
predicts leader performance
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it emphasises a strong link between TL and LP and shows
indirect, but still relationship with P
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a meta-analysis on
58 studies - 2015
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Transformational leadership and context - 2016
context in which their seems to be 1. low organisational consideration, 2. high
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looking at leader support and
cooperation and transformational leaderships
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highlights how TL still may be
influenced to some extent by context
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we still have to think about different situations
people are in that may influence perception of leadership performance/ effectiveness
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Sternberg versus Vroom
The person versus the situation in leadership - exchange of letters - good for critical argument
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summary - what makes an effective leader?
traits/ personality - big 5
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situation?
anyone can be an effective leader
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behaviour?
leadership styles
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contingency theories?
behaviour contingent on situation
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but what about the relationships in the group?
transactional - leader-member exchange (reward) and transformational - inspire, most recognition in research
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Card 2

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What is leadership?

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persuading & directing group members towards attainment of a common goal

Card 3

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who said it?

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Card 4

Front

why are they leading?

Back

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Card 5

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critical thinking point 1?

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