Language and Reading

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Why does a pattern convey meaning?
in learning a language a person learns to associate visual patterns with meanings
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Why do they do this?
Creating a store of knowledge about the words of the language
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What is eye tracking?
Measure how long people actually spend looking at a word when reading
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What is the lexicon decision task?
Decide whether each item is a word (yes) or (no) respond by pressing the yes or no button
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What is priming?
Showing a word before the target word
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What is a naming task?
Word will be presented until pps's response activates a voice key
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What is word frequency?
Naming and lexical decision task to test words presented in isolation
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What is a high frequency word and a low frequency word?
Teacher, Armadillo
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What did researchers find/
Low frequency words take longer to recognise
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What is another factor that affects word recognition?
Predictability
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For example?
Pps read an incomplete sentence: the skiers were buried alive by the sudden .. and then attempt to recognise a single word
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what else effects word recognition?
Context effects
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what is the main question?
Will using the context make a word more or less predictable affect word recognition time
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What was varied?
The amount of context
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What was the target word?
Avalanche/inflation was presented at varying exposure durations
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What was measured?
the exposure time necessary for word recognition
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What is another factor that affects word recognition?
Neighbourhood effects
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What is orthographic neighbourhood?
The number of words that can be formed by changing one letter of a word while maintaining letter position
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For example?
Two neighbours of TANK are TASK and RANK
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What is orthography?
Information about the spelling of words
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What are phonological neighbourhood?
The number of words that can be formed by changing one phoneme of a word
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For example?
Two neighbours of GAIT are BAIT and GET
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What is the first theory of word recognition?
the Logogen model
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What are Logogens?
Word dectors
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What does each logogen have?
An activation threshold which needs to be met before it fires
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Therefore, what does this mean?
When enough evidence has been collected (the strength of the hammer hitting the bell) then the threshold is reached, the logogen fires and the word is recognised
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Therefore how could frequency effect this?
High frequency words have a lower threshold for firing whereas low frequency words take longer
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How are logogon model explained?
the semantic information from the sentence partially activates logogens, lowering their threshold, this decreases the amount of information needed from the word itself to fire the logogen
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Because of the bi-directional flow of information between the cognitive and logogen system what happens?
Activation from one logogen spreads indirectly to those for related words
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What happens when activated logogens do not return to their resting level immediately?
The primed target will require less perceptual input to be activated to its individual threshold, and hence less time than an unrelated target
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What did researchers use for example?
Stimulus --> mask --> forced choice: which did you see K or D
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What was the result?
10% improvedment in performance with the whole word compared to the single letter
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What types of connections are in the interactive activtion model?
Excitatory, inhibitory
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Why?
Connections run in both directions so that the network tends to evolve towards a state of activation in which everything is consistent
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What is transposed letter priming?
When two letters are swapped in a word: Judge - Jugde
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What was the conclusions?
JUdge was fasted and Jupte was slowest, these findings can be accounted for in recent models in which letter position is not fied, spatial coding model
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What does Dueal route model connect?
The visually presented word to the whole word's mental representation
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What is this used for?
high-frequency or familiar words
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What is the phonological route?
Accesses the mental representation of words using grapheme-to-phoneme conversion rules
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What is this used for?
reading low frequency and non words
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What happens in the skilled reading system?
these two routes develop independently as children learn to read
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What are the symptoms of phonological dyslexia?
Difficulty reading non-words
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Why?
The only way to read a novel letter string is to implement some process of decoding
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What does phonological dyslexia assume?
a selective deficit in developing the phonological roue, aplying graheme to phoneme conversion rules has not been mastered or is impaired
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What are the symptoms of surface dyslexia?
Problems reading irregular words
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Explanation?
 When presented with an irregular word, readers use the lexical route.
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What does surface dyslexia assume?
Surface dyslexia assumes a selective deficit in the lexical route.  Results in difficulty in pronouncing irregular words (i.e. ‘pint’ / ‘have’)
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What is a syntax?
The words in a sentence are not just strung together one after the other, they are structured into phrases and clauses
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What are two typical phrases?
the man, saw the man
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What can be be depicted in tree diagrams?
The ways that words are structured into phrases, clauses, and sentences
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How are the trees situated?
The trees are upside down with the root at the top and the branches at the bottom
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What can each sentence be?
broken down to smaller constituents (nodes)
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How are nodes connected?
via branches
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What is the definition of syntatic ambiguity?
Where a clause or sentence may have more than one interpretation, given the potential grammatical functions of the individual words
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What are two types of syntactic ambiguity?
Global ambiguity, temporary ambiguity
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What is an example of global ambiguity?
The spy saw the cop with binoculars
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What is an example of temporary ambiguity?
While Anna dressed the baby threw up
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What is a problem with Global syntatic ambiguity sentence, the spy observed the politician with binoculars?
Who was holding the binoculars
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What is the problem with temporary syntactic ambiguity such as 'While Anna dressed the baby threw up'?
Known as a garden path sentence, the early part of the sentence leads the reader, down the garden path towards he wrong interpretation
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Therefore what is considered?
one syntactic structure
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What is not involved?
The selection of this structure
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What happened if the simplest structure is incorrect?
then the sentence meaning can influence re-analysis
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What is minimal attachment?
Use the triangle with less nodes
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What is late closure?
They both have 10 nodes, so we choose the easiest interpretation
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What are constraints?
context, plausibility, general world knowledge, verb bias
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What are activated simultaneously?
Competing sentence structures
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What is syntactic structure?
receiving most support from all the constraints is the most activated and is chosen?
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What is another model of syntactic processing?
Unrestricted race model
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What is non- literal language?
when the intended meaning cannot be derived by direct composition of the literal meanings of the words as guided by the grammar
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For example?
One thing is said in order to express another, also known as figurative language. Includes: metaphor, idiom, irony
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What is a metaphor?
an expression which describes a person or object in a literary way by referring to something that is considered to possess similar characteristics to the person of object you are trying to describe
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for example?
My lawyer is a shark
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What is an idiom?
A grou of words in a fixed order that have a particular meaning that is different from the meanings of each word understood on its own
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For example?
Kick the bucket - to die
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What is the meaning of Irony?
a means of expression which suggests a different, usually humorous or angry, meaning for the words used
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What are the 3 theories of figurative language processing?
Standard Pragmatic view, Direct access view, Graded salience hypothesis
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What is standard pragmatic view?
Irony, function: to communicate the opposite of what is said
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What is the processing?
Literal meaning is accessed first, mismatch with context is detected, the utterance is then reanalysed as being ironic
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What are the results?
Processing cost for ironic language compared to the same utterance intended literally
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What is the direct access view of irony?
Literal and ironic language are essentially treated in the same way
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What is the processing?
Ironic meaning can be accessed without accessing the literal meaning first
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What about additional processing?
No additional processing cost for ironic language compared to literal language
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What is irony for?
highly familiar ironies, the ironic meaning is accessed straightaway
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What about for unfamiliar ironies?
The literal meaning is accessed first then reanalysis must occur
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What is shallow processing/
How many animals of each kind did moses take on the ark?
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What is logical inferences?
Depend only on the meaning of words.
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For example?
WE can infer that anyone who is a widow is female
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What is bridging inferences?
Establish coherence between the current part of the text and the preceding text
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What is elaborative inferences?
Embellish or add details to the text by making use of our knowledge
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What is the constructionist approach?
Readers typically construct a relatively complete 'mental model' of the situation and events referred to in the text
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What is the implication?
Numerous elaborative inferences are drawn while reading
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What is the sentence of the constructionist approach?
Three turtles rested on a floating log, and a fish swarm under the log
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What is a test sentence?
Three turtles rested on a floating log, and a fish swarm beneath it
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What is the task against constructionish approach?
PArticipants read a story about a ruthless dictator, Gerald martin
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what happened one week later?
They were given a test of recognition memory, they were told just before the memory test that the story had really been about Adolph Hitle
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What are the findings?
Pps mistakenly 'recognised' sentences relevant to hitler that had appeared in the original story
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What is the first point of minimalist hyothesis?
Inferences are either automatic or strategic
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What about some automatic inferences?
They establish local coherence
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What do other automatic inferences rely on?
Information explicitly stated in the text
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What about other automatic inferences?
they rely on information explicitly states in the text
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When are strategic inferences formed?
in pursuit of the reader's goals
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What is made at recall?
Most elaborative inferences
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In evidence to support the minimalist hypothesis, what were groups 1 and 2 told?
Grp1 - Instructed to read for comprehension, Grp2 - Explicitly told to try and anticipate what might happen next
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For example?
At the restuarant with some friends he had invited, when dinner was finished, harry asked the waitor to bring him the check and got out his wallet. TARGET WORD: paid
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What were the findings?
Group 2 drew more elaborative inferences than group 1 - even when participants in group 1 drew elaborative inferences they did so more slowly than those in group 2
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Who did this study?
Calvo, Castillo and Schmalhofer
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Who found evidence against the Minimalist hypothesis?
Texts were compared in which the goal of the main character was explicitly stated or only implied
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What did they find?
Readers took longer to read a sentence describing an inconsistent action than one describing a consistent action, regardless of whether the goal was explicit or implicit
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Therefore?
Readers inferred the character's goal even when it was only implied
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What was the explicit goal statement?
He wanted to go somewhere warm and sunny
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What was the implicit goal statement?
He had always been a sun worshipper
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What was the text?
He bought a book on travel, then he looked the ads in the travel section of the sunday newspaper. he went to his local travel agent ...
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What was the consistent and inconsistent target lines?
Asked for a plane ticket to florida, asked for a plane ticket to alaska
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Who created the Event-indexing model?
Zwaan & Radvansky
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What were the five factors involved in the event-indexing model?
The protagonist, temporality, causality,spatiality, intentionality
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What is the protagonist and temporality?
PR- the central character or actor in the present event compared to the previous one. TEMP: the relationship between the times at which the present and previous events occured
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What are the remaining 3?
CAUS: Casual relationship of the current event and the previous one, SPAT: RElationship between the spatial setting of the current event and a previous event, INTENT: relationship between characters goals and present events
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Who found evidence to support the event indexing model?
claus and Ketler
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What did he do?
PPs were presented with passages describing four events, events were either in chronological order or not, the duration of E2 was manipulated, the accessibility of E1 was tested at the end of the passage
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What did they find?
The duration of the second event influenced the speed in which the first event could be accessed
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What about E1?
It was less accessible if the text implied that it occured a shorter time ago
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What was the conclusion?
Readers put the four events in the correct chronological order
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What do schemas store?
Scripts and frames stored in long term memory
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What does the script mean?
Deal with knowledge about particular event and consequences of events
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What is meant by frames?
Knowledge structures relating to some aspect of the world. They consist of fixed structural information and slots for variable information
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What happened experiential stimulations approach?
When applied to language: the same sensorimotor representations that are activated while interacting with the environment are re-enacted or stimulated when reading about a similar experience
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When participants were asked to either turn up or turn down a dial, what happened when the story changed?
they found it easier to turn down when the text said Alex turned down the volume
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What do Participants make?
Affective judgements about positive and negative words by pulling and pushing a lever
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what were push responses?
Faster for negative stimuli,
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What were pull responses?
Positive stimuli
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What is the affect movement compatibility effect?
Positive stimuli prime approach behaviours, negative emotional stimuli prepare the body to avoid
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what is affect?
Inducing emotional states can influence language comprehension
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What are two strengths for the stimulations approach?
Framework for explaining the nature of the internal representation created by readers and listeners in order to understand language
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What about increasing evidence?
Perception, action, and emotion stimulations are involved in language comprehension
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what are the weaknesses of stimulations approach
It is not known whether experiental simulations approach applies under ALL circumstances. For example, how does it explain how abstract concepts such as ‘truth’, ‘freedom’ and ‘law’ are represented?
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Front

Why do they do this?

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Creating a store of knowledge about the words of the language

Card 3

Front

What is eye tracking?

Back

Preview of the front of card 3

Card 4

Front

What is the lexicon decision task?

Back

Preview of the front of card 4

Card 5

Front

What is priming?

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Preview of the front of card 5
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