Infection and Response, Bioenergetics

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Name the 4 pathogens
Bacteria, Virus, Fungi, Protist
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What is a pathogen?
Micro-organism causing infectious disease
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Size of bacteria and job.
1/100th of your body cells. Make you feel ill by releasing toxins that damage your cells and tissues.
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Job of virus and size
Live and reproduce inside cells, then burst. Cell damage makes you ill. 1/100th of a bacterium
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Size and job of fungi
Single-celled. body made up of hyphae. Can grow and penetrate human skin and the surface of plants, causing disease. Produce spores, spread to other plants and animals.
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Job and size of protists
Eukaryotes, single-celled. Some parasites. Line on or inside other organisms and cause damage. Transferred by vector, doesn't get disease itself
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Give 3 examples of ways a disease can be spread
Direct contact, air, water
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Give 3 examples of Viral diseases
Measles, HIV, Tobacco Mosaic Virus
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Symptoms of HIV
First, flu-like disease. If not controlled by antiretroviral drugs the virus attacks the body's immune cells. AIDS when immune system can no longer deal with infections or cancer.
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How is HIV spread?
Sexual contact or exchnage of fluids such as blood which occurs when drug users share needles
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Symptoms of measles
Viral disease showing symptoms of fever and red skin rash. If complications can be fatal. Young children vaccinated.
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How is measles spread?
Inhalation of droplets from sneezes and coughs
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Symptoms of TMV
Widespread plant pathogen affecting many species of plants including tomatoes. Mosaic pattern of discolouration on leaves, affects growth of plant due to lack of photosynthesis
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Give 2 examples of bacterial diseases
Salmonella and Gonorrhoea
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Symptoms of salmonella
Fever, abdominal cramps, vomiting and diarrhoea caused by bacteria and toxins they secrete
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How is salmonella spread?
Food poisoning is spread by bacteria ingested in food or on food prepared in unhygienic conditions. Poultry vaccinated.
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Symptoms of gonorrhoea
STD, symptoms of thick yellow or green discharge from vagina or penis and pain urinating.
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How is gonorrhoea spread?
Caused by bacterium and was easily treated with antibiotic penicillin until many resistant strains appeared. Gonorrhoea is spread by sexual contact.
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How can the spread of gonorrhoea be controlled?
With antibiotics or use of a barrier method of contraception such as condoms.
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Example of fungal disease
Rose black spot
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Symptoms of rose black spot
Purple or black spots develop on leaves, often turn yellow and drop early. Affects growth of plant as photosynthesis is reduced.
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How can rose black spot spread?
By water or wind
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How is rose black spot treated?
using fungicides and/or removing and destroying affected leaves.
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Examples of disease caused by protist
Malaria
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Explain how malaria works
Life cycle includes mosquito. Recurrent episodes of fever and can be fatal. Spread controlled by preventing vectors (mosquito) from breeding and by using mosquito nets.
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How can the spread of disease be reduced or prevented?
Being hygienic, Destroying vectors, Isolating infected individuals, Vaccination
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Name the non-specific defence system of the human body against pathogens
Skin, nose, trachea and bronchi, and stomach
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How is the skin adapted to fight infections?
Acts as a barrier. Secretes antimicrobial substances which kill pathogens
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How is the nose adapted to fight infections?
Hairs and mucus trap particles that could contain pathogens
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How is trachea and bronchi adapted to fight infections?
Secrete mucus to trap pathogens. Lined with cilia. Hair like structures, waft mucus up to back of throat where it can be swallowed.
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How is the stomach adapted to fight infections?
Produces hydrochloric acid. Kills pathogen
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Role of the immune system
If pathogens enter the body the immune system tries to destroy the pathogen. MOST IMPORTANT PART IS WHITE BLOOD CELLS
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What are the 3 things white blood cells can do to defend against pathogens?
Phagocytosis, antibody production, antitoxin production
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Explain phagocytosis
Phagocyte recognise bacteria invading body. Cell membrane fuses around single bacterium, ENGULFING in phagosome. Fuses with lysosome, contains acidic enzymes and toxic chemicals forming phagolysosome. Break down bacterium. Macrophage digest or getrid
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Explain antibody production
Every pathogen has antigen on surface. White blood cell produce protein called antibody for antigen. Lock onto invading cell, can be found and destroyed by other WBC. specific to antigen, don't lock onto others. Produced rapidly. Body remembers.
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What are antitoxins?
They counteract toxins produced by invading bacterium
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How does vaccination prevent illness?
Involves introducing small quantities of dead or inactive forms of pathogen. Stimulate WBC produce antibodies. If same pathogen re-enters, body produce correct antibody
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How does vaccination reduce spread of pathogens?
Even people vaccinated won't get it because fewer people to pass on.
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How do antibiotics treat disease?
Kill or prevent growth of bacteria causing problem without killing own cells.
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What do painkillers do?
Treat symptoms not kill pathogens.
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Why is their more strains resistant to antibiotics?
If you don't take the full antibiotic course then there could still be resistant bacteria. These will mutate and reproduce to create resistant bacteria. Could cause resistant strain, MRSA
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Step 1 of drug testing
Tested on human cell and tissues in lab.
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Step 2 of drug testing
Test on live animals. Test efficacy, toxicity, dosage. law is to test on 2 different animals . Some find it cruel.
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Step 3 of drug testing
Tested on human volunteers in clinical trials. 1st, healthy volunteers. No harmful side effects Low dose. If positive, people suffering illness, Find optimum dose.
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Explain the placebo effect
split into 2 groups, 1 has real drug & 1 has placebo. Doctor can see actual difference. Patient thinks they have real drug
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What are double blind trials?
Doctor and patient don't know if they have placebo
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Final stage of drug testing
Peer review
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What is efficacy?
Whether drug works and is effective
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What is toxicity?
How harmful it is
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What is dosage?
Concentration given and how often it should be taken
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Monoclonal antibodies
From single clone of cells. Specific to 1 binding site on 1 protein antigen, target specific chemicals or cells.
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How are monoclonal antibodies produced?
Stimulating mouse lymphocytes make particular antibody. Lymphocytes combined with particular kind of tumour cell to make cell called hybridoma. Hybridoma cell can both divide and make antibody. Single hybridoma cells are cloned to produce identical
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Examples of where monoclonal antibodies are used
Pregnancy test, laboratories to measure levels of hormones and chemicals in blood, detect pathogens, Research to locate or identify specific molecules by binding to fluorescent dye. Treat some diseases
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How are monoclonal antibodies used in pregnancy tests?
Hormone called HCG found in urine when pregnant. Stick you wee on has some antibodies to hormones, with blue beads attached. Test ***** has more antibodies, hormones stuck. TURN BLUE
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How can monoclonal antibodies treat diseases?
Cancer cells have antigens on cell membrane aren't found on normal cells. Tumour markers. Make monoclonal antibodies in lab that bind to tumour markers. Anti-cancer drug attached to monoclonal antibodies. radioactive drug, toxic drug, give drip.
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How can monoclonal antibodies be used in laboratories and research to find specific substances?
Bind to hormones and other chemicals in blood to measure levels. Test blood for pathogens. Locate specific molecules.
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Problem with monoclonal antibodies
Have more side effects than expected. Not as widely used.
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How can plant diseases be detected?
Stunted growth. SPots on leaves, areas of decay, growths, malformed stems or leaves, discolouration, presence of pests.
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How can identification be made?
Reference to gardening manual or website. Taking infected plants to laboratory. Using testing kits.
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Examples of plants ion deficiency conditions?
Stunted growth caused by nitrate deficiency. Chlorosis caused by magnesium defiency
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What are nitrate ions used for?
Protein synthesis.
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What are magnesium ions used for?q
Make chlorophyll
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Equation for photosynthesis
Carbon dioxide + water (light on arrow)-----> glucose+ oxygen
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Symbol equation for photosynthesis
CO2, H20, O2, C6H12O6
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Why is photosynthesis endothermic?
Energy transferred from environment in process.
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Explain the effect of temperature on photosynthesis
Hotter=faster, can't be too hot damages enzymes.
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Explain effect of light on photosynthesis
Light level raised= rate of photosynthesis increase steadily.
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Explain effect of carbon dioxide on photosynthesis
Too little= slower
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Explain effect of chlorophyll on photosynthesis
If chlorophyll is damaged from disease or lack of nutrients, limiting factor
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Equation for light intensity and distance
light intensity proportional to 1/ distance squared
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Why are limiting factors important?
In economics of enhancing conditions in greenhouses to gain maximum rate of photosynthesis while still maintaing profit
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Required practical- photosynthesis
Look at revision notes
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List use of glucose in photosynthesis
Used for respiration, converted into insoluble starch for storage, Used to produce fat or oil for storage, used to produce cellulose, strengthens cell wall, Produce amino acids for protein synthesis
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What do plants need to produce protein?
Nitrate ions
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Examples of artificial conditions?
greenhoouse traps sun's heat. Might use a heater. Shades or ventiliation. Artificial light. Paraffin heater for CO2.
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What is respiration?
The process of transferring energy from glucose which goes on in every cell
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Why is respiration exothermic?
Transfers energy to environment
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Why do organisms need energy?
Chemical reactions to build larger molecules, movement, keeping warm
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Equation for anaerobic respiration
Glucose + Oxygen ---> Carbon dioxide + water
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Equation for anaerobic respiration in muscles is represented by equation
Glucose --> Lactic acid
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Why is less energy transferred in anaerobic respiration than in aerobic respiration?
Oxidation of glucose is incomplete
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Equation for anaerobic respiration in plant and yeast cells
Glucose--> ethanol + carbon dioxide
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What is anaerobic respiration in yeast cells called?
Fermentation and has economic importance in the manufacutre of bread and alcoholic drinks
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What does the body react to during exercise?
The increased demand for energy
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What increases to supply the muscles with more oxygenated blood?
Heart rate, breathing rate and breath volume
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Explain respiration during exercise
If insufficient oxygen is supplied anaerobic respiration takes place in muscles. Incomplete oxidisation of glucose cause build up of lactic acid and creates oxygen debt. during long period, muscles become fatigued and stop contracting efficiently
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Explain oxygen debt
Blood flowing through the muscles transports the lactic acis to liver where converted back into glucose. Oxygen debt is amount of extra oxygen the body needs afetr exercise to react with the accumulated lactic acid and remove it from cells
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What is metabolism?
Sum of all reactions in a cell or body
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What does metabolism include?
Conversion of glucose to starch, glucose & cellulose, formation of lipid molecules from molecule of glycerol and 3 molecules of fatty acids, use of glucose & nitrate ions form amino acids, ussed protein synthesis, respiration, excess protein formurea
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Other cards in this set

Card 2

Front

What is a pathogen?

Back

Micro-organism causing infectious disease

Card 3

Front

Size of bacteria and job.

Back

Preview of the front of card 3

Card 4

Front

Job of virus and size

Back

Preview of the front of card 4

Card 5

Front

Size and job of fungi

Back

Preview of the front of card 5
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