Immunology, Gas Exchange and Digestion

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Describe the function of antibodies
Antibodies agglutinate pathogens which allows phagocytes to engulf many pathogens at once
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Describe how a secondary response differs to a primary response.
Secondary is much faster and stronger because memory cells that are produced during primary can recognise it again, memory b cells divide into plasma cells again which secrete the correct antibody. memory T-cells divide into killer t cells faster
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Vaccines can be used to protect people against diseases. Not all people must be vaccinated. Why?
When some people get the vaccine, the occurrence of the disease is less likely, those who are not vaccinated are less likely to get the disease. This is called herd immunity.
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Influenza causes the flu, explain why it is likely to suffer from the flu more than once.
The virus can change its antibodies, when you're infected for a second time, your body does not recognise the pathogen so you have to have another primary response. Meaning you become ill
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Immunity from a disease can be active or passive. a) explain why active immunity offers long term protection against a disease whereas passive offers short term.
Active involves specific memory cells production. Meaning the system is able to use a secondary if the pathogen enters again. Passive is short term as antibodies given are broken down into the body.
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It normally takes 14 days for immunity to develop after having a vaccine. Explain why vaccines do not usually offer immediate protection against disease.
It takes a long time for the body to produce antibodies against the antigens in a vaccine.
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Describe how monoclonal antibodies can be used to target a drug to cancer cells.
Monoclonal antibodies are made against specific cancer cells/tumour markers. An anti cancer drug is attached to the antibodies. The antibodies bind to the antigen/tumour markers on cancer cells. This delivers the drug to the cells.
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How are antibodies used in pregnancy tests?
The application area has antibodies for hCG, when urine containing hCG is put on the applicator, it will bind, forming an antibody-antigen complex. It moves up the stick, the test stri.p has antibodies immobilised. hCG present = line, if not no line.
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How does the ELISA test use antibodies?
In the test, an antibody with an enzyme is used. The enzyme reacts with a substrate to give a colour. If there's colour, it shows an antigen / antibody of interest is present. Direct=single antibody complementary to antigen. Indirect=two antibodies.
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Explain how ELISA is used for HIV
HIV Antigen is bound to well in a well plate. A sample of Patient's blood plasma is added to the well. HIV-specific antibodies bind to HIV antigen on bottom of well. Then washed out to remove unwanted antibodies.
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Prev. question continued.
Secondary antibody w/ specific enzyme is added to well. Can bind to HIV-Specific antibody. Well is washed out again to remove unbound secondary antibody. Solution is added to well, w/substrate - enzyme reacts = coloured product. Colour change=HIV pos
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Describe the structure of HIV
HIV has a core that contains RNA and some proteins. Outer layer called capsid - made of protein. Surrounded by envelope made from membrane of the host cell. Attachment proteins sticking out from envelope.
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Explain why a small mammal needs a relatively high metabolic rate compared to a large mammal
A small mammal has a bigger surface to volume ratio than a large mammal. This means the heat is lost more easily. So a smaller mammal needs a relative high metabolic rate in order to generate enough heat to maintain a constant body temperature.
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Explain gas exchange in fish.
Water containing oxygen enter through the mouth and out through the gills. The gills have thin plates called gill filaments. They have a big surface area for gas exchange. They are covered in lamellae with capillaries.
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Cont.
Blood flows over lamellae, water flows the opposite way. (counter-current system) Conc of oxygen in water is higher than the blood so the oxygen diffuses.
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Explain how insects are adapted for gas exchange
Insects have small pores called spiracles which oxygen travels down, down a concentration gradient. Trscheoles are thin and permeable, O2 diffuses out of the tracheoles. CO2 moves to spiracles to be released into the atmosphere.
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Explain how dicotyledonous plants exchange gases.
Plants need co2 for photosynthesis. They need O2 for respiration. Surface of the mesophyll cells have a large surface area. Gases move in and out of the stomata. They open and close depending on water levels. Guard cells control the open and close
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Explain how insects and plants control water loss.
Insects close their spiracles using muscles with a waterproof, waxy cuticle, and tiny hairs which reduce evaporation. Stomata in plants open in the day water enters guard cells=turgid and open. Dehydrated=flaccid and close the pores.
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Describe xerophytic adaptations.
Stomata sink in pits reduce the conc. of water. 'hairs' on the epidermis trap moist air around stomata. Curled leaves with stomata inside. Reduced number of stomata. Waxy, waterproof cuticles to prevent evaporation.
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How are lungs specialised for gas exchange?
Air enters the trachea, which splits into bronchi - one to each lung. Into smaller bronchioles and end in alveoli - air sacs.
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Describe and explain inspiration (active process which requires energy) during ventilation.
External intercostal muscles and diaphragm contract causing the ribcage to move up and out - the diaphragm flattens, increasing the volume of the thoracic cavity. Lung pressure decreases and air from a high area of pressure to low pressure into lungs
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Describe and explain expiration (passive process) during ventilation.
External intercostal muscles relax and diaphragm relaxes. Ribcage moves down and in, diaphragm becomes curved again. Volume of thoracic cavity decreases, air increases and out of lungs.
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Explain what happens during forced expiration.
External intercostal muscles relax and internal intercostal muscles contract, pulling the ribcage further down and in. The intercostal muscles are antagonistic.
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Explain how gas exchange happens in the alveoli
Big surface area due to large number of alveoli. THey're surrounded by capillaries. O2 diffuses into capillaries from the alveoli across the alveolar epithelium and capillary epithelium. Into haemoglobin. Co2 into alveoli and out.
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Describe how alveoli are adapted for gas exchange
A thin exchange surface - alveolar epithelium is one cell thick = short diffusion pathway. Large surface area - large number of alveoli.
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How can measures of lung function help diagnose disease.
Tidal volume = volume in each breath - 0.4dm3 or 0.5dm3. Ventilation rate = number of breaths. 15 breaths per min. Forced Expiratory Volume = Max vol. of air breathed out in 1 second. Forced vital capacity = max vol. air possible to force out.
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Describe Pulmonary Tuberculosis
Immune system builds war around bacteria in lungs. = tubercles. Infected tissue dies and gas exchange surface = damage. Tidal volume = decreased. Fibrosis decreses more. Less air inhaled. Breathe faster. Cough, blood, mucus, fatigue, short breaths.
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Describe Fibrosis
Scar tissue in lungs, infection of substances - asbestos/dust. Scar tissue is thicker and less elastic = lungs don't expand. Can't hold air. Reduction in gas exchange. Shortness of breath, pain, fatigue. Faster ventilation rate.
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Describe Asthma
Airways = inflamed and irritated. Such as pollen/dust. Smooth muscle lining in bronchioles contracts - mucus produced. Constriction of airways. No breathe properly. FEV is reduced. Wheezing, shortness of breath. Can be relieved by drugs (inhaler).
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Emphysema
Causes by smoking/air pollution. Become trapped in alveoli. Causes inflammation attracts phagocytes. Produce enzymes break down elastin. Alveoli go back to their original shape. Air can become trapped. Destruction of walls reduces SA Wheeze short br.
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Explain how food is broken down during digestion.
Large biological molecules are too big to cross cell membranes. Can't absorb from gut. Broken down into smaller molecules -easily absorbed and transported. Polymers into monomers. Carbohydrates to disaccharides. Fats to monoglycerides and fatty acid.
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Explain how enzymes are used to break down molecules in food.
Amylase hydrolyses glycosidic bonds. In salivary glands and pancreas. Membrane-bound disaccharidases attach to cell membrane of epithelial break disaccharides. Transported via transporter proteins.
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Cont.
Lipids by lipase. Into monoglycerides and fatty acids. Hydrolysis of ester bonds. Pancreas - small intestine. Bile emulsifies lipids - small droplets. Several droplets=large SA. for lipase. Fatty acids-monoglyc to bile = micelles
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cont.
Proteins by Endopeptidases and exopeptidases. Endopeptidases - trypsin and chymotrypsin in pancreas into small intestine, Pepsin in stomach by lining in acidic conditions - hcl. Break bonds in proteins.
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cont.
Exopeptidases - hydrolyse bonds at ends of proteins, remove single amino acids. dipeptidases work on dipeptides. hydrolyse peptide bond. Cell-surface membranes of epithelial cells in small intestine.
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Explain how monosaccharides are absorbed across membranes.
Glucose is absorbed by active transport with sodium ions via co-transporter protein. Galactose absorbed same way. Fructose = facilitated diffusion.
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Explain how monogylcerides and fatty acids are absorbed across membranes.
Micelles help move them towards the epithelium. They can 'release' monoglycerides. Monoglycerides and fatty acids are lipid-soluble so diffuse directly.
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Explain how Amino acids are absorbed across membranes.
Amino Acids absorbed in a similar ways. Sodium ions are actively transported out into ileum. Diffuse back into cells through sodium dependant transporter proteins in the epithelial cell membranes carrying amino acids with them.
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Card 2

Front

Describe how a secondary response differs to a primary response.

Back

Secondary is much faster and stronger because memory cells that are produced during primary can recognise it again, memory b cells divide into plasma cells again which secrete the correct antibody. memory T-cells divide into killer t cells faster

Card 3

Front

Vaccines can be used to protect people against diseases. Not all people must be vaccinated. Why?

Back

Preview of the front of card 3

Card 4

Front

Influenza causes the flu, explain why it is likely to suffer from the flu more than once.

Back

Preview of the front of card 4

Card 5

Front

Immunity from a disease can be active or passive. a) explain why active immunity offers long term protection against a disease whereas passive offers short term.

Back

Preview of the front of card 5
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