Hazard Perception Essay Plan

?
Benda and Hoyos (1983)
Evaluating the hazardous of a traffic situation
1 of 64
Horswill and Mckenna (2005)
Hazard perception can be considered to be situational awareness for dangerous situations in the traffic environment
2 of 64
How many people are killed on the world's roads each year?
1.3 million
3 of 64
What is the trend in the UK on the roads?
There has been a steady reduction in accidents - population up 15%, yet road fatalities down 68% over last 30 years
4 of 64
Every driver has a what? and how is this related to driving?
A skill level, the lower the skill level the higher the crash risk
5 of 64
We want to find a way to measure 'skill' how?
Reliably and efficiently, train drivers to improve their 'driving skill' and use these measures to test that these people are now skilful enough
6 of 64
Driving tuition and practice combined with practical test is an aspect of this, however, how many criticisms are there?
safety critical skills are hard to learn and measure unless something dangerous occurs either in the test or whilst learning to drive (but learners aren’t allowed to do certain driving things e.g. drive on a motorway)
7 of 64
What has happened after a follow up of participants who have taken the HP test?
low scorers have all had collisions (meaning you can train dangerous drivers until they have this skill) and no one else has
8 of 64
Why are crash rates an unreliable measure?
Frequency of road use – more use, more chance, Types of road – more dangerous roads, more chance, Random chance, Collisions are infrequent – even if you’re a bad driver, you can still avoid crashes, Blame – bad drivers can crash into a good driver
9 of 64
What is the actual Hp test?
Watch 14 video clips, Developing hazard: Something that would cause you to take action, like changing speed or direction, get up to 5 points for each hazard.
10 of 64
What is situational awareness?
“...the perception of the elements in the environment within a volume of time and space, the comprehension of their meaning and the projection of their status in the near future” –Endsley (1999)
11 of 64
Situational Awareness Model: Endsley, 1995;2015
Perception, Comprehension and Projection
12 of 64
Why is this important for Hp?
it’s not just about seeing what’s going on but interpreting it and understanding what they may do.
13 of 64
What is the overall pass rate for the Test?
86%
14 of 64
What are driving instructors less likely to do?
Pass HP test that learners (62%) because they have a higher pass mark than learners (57/75 compared to 44/75)
15 of 64
Nahvi (2007)
claims that the poor pass rate for ADIs compared to learner drivers demonstrates that the HP test is not measuring what it claims to
16 of 64
Horswill and McKenner (2004)
Face Validity High: feels like it is measuring something relevant and useful, most people are willing to do the HP test as part of the theory test
17 of 64
Watts and Quimby (1979)
Similar risk ratings given by drivers watching filmed hazard clips and on road, estimating risk from a video is same as estimating risk whilst driving
18 of 64
What did Slow RTs and missed hazards in HP test correlated with what?
driving instructors’ on-road ratings of how good their pupils are (Mills et al., 1998) – driving instructors think that people who perform badly on HP tests are also bad drivers on the road.
19 of 64
Wells et al (2008)
 Cohort study looking at participants who had passed test with and without doing a HP test before (based on when it was introduced)
20 of 64
What had HP test reduced?
certain types of collision: largest for non-low speed accidents on a public road where the driver accepts some of the blame, those who took the HP test showed a reduction in this type of accident by 3%
21 of 64
Small significant different on specific type of crash but what did a one tailed test show?
Cannot draw conclusions from the opposite result, cannot test the idea that HP tests makes you more dangerous
22 of 64
Some weak evidence for the efficacy of UK HP testing reduced what?
crash rates but still likely to encourage appropriate training
23 of 64
Grayson (1998)
Novices described as “attentive, safe, skilful” had shorter RTs in HP test
24 of 64
What were there differences in?
There are novice/experienced driver differences in hazard perception skill that map onto what would be expected if hazard perception is a skill that improved with experience and training
25 of 64
McKenna & Crick (1994)
the test revealed large, significant differences in the hazard perception abilities of the two groups, with virtually no overlap shown in the distributions of test scores. The test was able to correctly categorise subjects as either expert or novice
26 of 64
Chapman & Underwood (1998)
novices (<3 months) and experienced (5-10 years), they show eye movement differences but no RT differences in HP (the standard test at the time) – novices were not worse than experts
27 of 64
Horwill & McKenna (1994)
argued that the previous study’s experienced participants aren’t experienced enough. They used 10+ years experienced and their novices were <3 years. They did find differences but their sample is not very representative
28 of 64
Sagberg & Bjørnskau (2006)
1 month, 5 months, 9 months and 27 years. No differences overall in HP performance as a function of experience but they did find differences on some clips.
29 of 64
Experience doesnt improve this skill as older drivers showed impaired HP, however what?
Hazard perception RTs increased significantly with age and this was mainly due to contrast sensitivity and useful field of view
30 of 64
Chapman et al (2002)
Eye movement training. Showed drivers where to look using circles overlaid on videos, stressing the need for scanning of multiple locations.
31 of 64
What did they find?
They found effects transferred to later hazard perception tests (3 months – 6 months later) and on-road driving (immediately but not after a delay)
32 of 64
McKenna and Crick (1994)
A direct test of the role of training was carried out by examining a group of drivers undergoing ROSPA's advanced driving course.
33 of 64
What did they find in relation to control group?
Relative to the control group the ROSPA group showed a significant improvement in their performance on the hazard perception test following training – but what about actual driving?
34 of 64
Wells et al (2008)
cohort study, higher proportion used no material to study for the hazard perception part of the theory test than the multiple choice questions (4% vs 0.5%), no single type of study aid was a clear favourite among respondents – not even practicing
35 of 64
Young, Crundall and Chapman (2017)
Live commentary is detrimental to hazard perception, even after practice.
36 of 64
What did they find?
commentary exposure led to an initial increase in the accuracy of hazard perception responses, this effect was limited to the first occasion of testing, and showed no later benefits relative to engaged hazard exposure
37 of 64
Meir et al (2012)
Act and Anticipate Hazard Perception Training Intervention
38 of 64
What did they form?
Formed and evaluated a new HP training intervention, which is based upon exposing young novice drivers to a vast array of actual traffic hazards, aiming to enhance their ability to anticipate potential hazards during testing
39 of 64
What were the three types of intervention?
Three types: active (observed video-based traffic scenes and were asked to press a response button each time they detected a hazard), instructional (underwent a tutorial that included both written material and video-based examples regarding HP) and
40 of 64
What was found?
The active and hybrid modes were more aware of potential hazards relative to the control so inclusion of an active–practical component generates an effective intervention
41 of 64
McDonald et al (2015)
19 studies used a variety of training methods including interactive computer programs, videos, simulation, commentary driving, or a combination of approaches
42 of 64
How were training effects predominantly measured?
By computer-based testing and driving simulation with eye tracking and four studies included an on-road evaluation and most evaluated short-term outcomes (immediate or few days) – none investigated long term crash effects
43 of 64
In all studies, young drivers showed what?
improvement in selected hazard anticipation outcomes but need long-term follow ups and evaluation of crash outcomes
44 of 64
2 Strengths of HP test
11% reduction in collisions, £89.5 million saved each year by reducing collisions, 100s of lives potentially saved (from the Driver and Vehicle Standards Agency) - Easy to administer and score – objective and automated
45 of 64
McKEnna and Crick, 1994
Small effects: square correlation to estimate variance accounted for (e.g. McKenna & Crick r of .11 = .012) = 1.2%
46 of 64
What does this need?
A large sample size
47 of 64
Groger (2000)
described some failures to replicate the relationship between accident involvement and hazard perception though these have not been reported in the literature. However, as non-significant findings are less likely to be published
48 of 64
What must be clearly defined?
Onset: Not the case that everyone agrees when a hazard is, there’s a huge mess in deciding when a hazard starts – measuring RTs is a lot harder
49 of 64
What is abrupt?
Really abrupt onset hazard, clear when it starts but all you are measuring is the lowest level of perceptual awareness – need to predict that something will happen  Abrupt onsets favour young – small RT differences as a function of age
50 of 64
Sagberg & Bjørnskau (2006)
anticipation (must have precursors), surprise (if it’s predictable, it’s not a hazard), complexity
51 of 64
Crundall et al (2012)
3 Types of HAzard: Behavioural Predictor, Environmental Predictor, Dividing and Focusing attention
52 of 64
What is behavioural predictor?
Approach a junction with an indicator flashing. They might pull out, they probably won’t, but you need to be aware of it
53 of 64
Environmental Predictor
View is obscured. Good driver knows that the environment is causing a hazard for them – should predict a hazard and slow down
54 of 64
Dividing and Focusing Attention
more than one hazard, must divide attention across the scene. Wider scanning strategy in experienced drivers, novices get fixated on one hazard and don’t look at the others
55 of 64
What happens next approach
Jackson et al. (2009): stopped video just before hazard as either freeze frame or black screen
56 of 64
What three questions did he ask?
“What is the most likely source of the hazard?”, “Where was the potential hazard when the clip stopped (physically)?”, “What happens next?”
57 of 64
Wetton et al (2013)
Though this hasn’t been implemented as the standard hazard perception test, there is some suggestion that it could be used for training hazard perception skill
58 of 64
What did they find?
Compared to the placebo control, all training interventions significantly improved hazard perception response times immediately after the intervention
59 of 64
what happened next training showed what?
the least improvement
60 of 64
Malaysian
Malaysian drivers may be desensitized to hazardous road situations and thus have increased response times to hazards, creating validity issues with the typical paradigm
61 of 64
Horswill and McKenna (2004)
Raise the possibility that good drivers might label events as more hazardous, resulting in faster RTs
62 of 64
Farrand and McKenna (2004)
sensitised drivers to detect hazards through explicit instruction. This didn’t make them faster to detect hazards. If response bias is involved in RTs then those who rate clips as more hazardous should have faster RTs which was not the case
63 of 64
Rowe (1997)
drivers good at a HP test had better memory for the driving details, suggesting that good drivers were more aware of the hazards (better at perception), rather than merely classifying them as more hazardous (due to response bias)
64 of 64

Other cards in this set

Card 2

Front

Horswill and Mckenna (2005)

Back

Hazard perception can be considered to be situational awareness for dangerous situations in the traffic environment

Card 3

Front

How many people are killed on the world's roads each year?

Back

Preview of the front of card 3

Card 4

Front

What is the trend in the UK on the roads?

Back

Preview of the front of card 4

Card 5

Front

Every driver has a what? and how is this related to driving?

Back

Preview of the front of card 5
View more cards

Comments

No comments have yet been made

Similar Psychology resources:

See all Psychology resources »See all HP resources »