topic 4

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what do plant cell have
Plant cells have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
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what is the cell wall
Cell wall - made of cellulose(straight chain polysaccharide from b glucose)-insoluble in water. invert so glycosidic bonds for between c3 and 6
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how does the cell wall form
cell wall forms in cell division
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what are vesicles
vesicles provide raw materials+enzymes
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what is the structure of a cell
cell membrane,secondary cell wall(lignin,increases strength,impermeable to water),primary cell wall(matrix of cellulose microfibrils embedded in a give of hemicellulose +pectin,middle lamella- made of calcium pectate and holds adjacent cells together
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what is the plasmodestmata
Plasmodesmata - extension of cytoplasm involved in the transport of substances between cells.when both cw absent,lined with membrane-cytoplasm filled with ER extending through
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what are pits
Pits - thin sections of the cell wall which also allow communication between adjacent cells.(s absent-lined with membrane,cytoplasm-filled pit)
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what do chloroplasts do
Chloroplasts - site of photosynethesis.contains the grama and stroma.flattened structure with double mambrane,thylakoid membranes inside,
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what is an amyloplast
Amyloplasts - organelles, surrounded by a double membrane, which contain amylopectin (starch).granules and convert back to glucose when the plant needs it.
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what is a vacuole
Vacuole - contains cell sap and is surrounded by a tonoplast (single membrane)which controls what enters/exits the vacuole.. Provides the cell with strength and support.keeping it turgid and break down and isolate unwanted chems
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xylem
Xylem vessels transport water and minerals, as well as provide structural support. They are long cylinders made of dead tissue with open ends. Xylem vessels are thickened with a tough substance called lignin.Hollow tubed decrease resistance to flow.A
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phloem
Phloem vessels are tubes made of living cells which are involved in translocation, which is the movement of food substances and nutrients from leaves to storage organs.sieve tube elements,companion cells(abundance of mitochondria)for active transport
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sclerenchyma
Sclerenchyma fibres provide structural support. They are short structures made of dead cells with a hollow lumen and end walls. They’re also thickened with lignin.they don't contain pits.
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magnesium
Magnesium-involved in chlorophyll producation-
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magnesium without
growth fairly normal,foliage slightly pale,older leaflets develop central necrosis,turn yellow or brown and wither prematurely
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phosphate
phosphate-takes in light-DNA and RNA are linked by phosphorous bonds,vital component of ATP in the energy unit of plants-
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phosphate without
growth thin,few stems,leaflets marginal corch,older leaves shed
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calcium
calcium-form calcium pectate,essential for plant growth
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calcium without
stunted growth,curling of the leaves,death of terminal buds and root tips
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nitrate
nitrate-supply nitrogen from making DNA and RNA,roteins and chlorophyll,required for plant growth,fruit production and seed production-
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nitrate without
growth severely restricted,few stems,yellowing of older foliage
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casparian *****
casparian *****-waterproof layer of suberin found in endodermis-forces water into plant cells via the symplast route-forces water and dissolved substances via the cell membrane giving control over what enters the xylem
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transpiration
loss of water through stomata passive
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symplast and apoplast route
epidermis-cortex-endodermis-pericycle(with plasmodesmata between each)(symplast route) apoplast route=plasma membrane+cell wall+xylem
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cohesion and adhesion
cohesion-H bonds between 2 same adhesion-H molecules between 2 different
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cohesion tension
H bonds form between water due to dipolar nature-increases tensile strength through cohesion and adhesion. This creates tension,pulling the water column up (CTT)99%evaporates through stomata
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5 water uses
water is used for 5 things:solvent to transport mineral ions,metanolic reactions(photosynthesis,hydrolysis),turgidity,cool plant down and creates a conc gradient-osmosis through apoplast pathway-adhesive force between pores of cellulose wall and wate
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factors affecting transpiration
Factors:temperature-inc wind,inc rate of transpiration,air removes water vapour from around the stomata-steep conc gradient inc temp,inc energy of water molecules therefore H bonds broken,liquid,water to gas at faster rate humidity inc humidit
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translocation
Translocation-moverment of organic solutes from source(leaves) to sink(root and shoot) phloem-live-active process-needs ATP from resp. which occurs in mitochondria
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mass flow at source
mass flow-at source-sucrose actively moved into phloem-creates osmotic gradient-water enters phloem from xylem-increases hydrostatic pressure
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at sink
at sink-sucrose actively moved out of phloem water leaves phloem by osmosis-companion cells on xylem-lowers HP in phloem overall-creates pressure gradient between S AND S therefore solution moves in that direction
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leave,roots shoots
leaves-glucose produced in photosynthesis-converted to less reactive sucrose root-sucrose stored as insoluble starch growing shoot-sucrose converted to glucose for resp
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what is the middle lamella
the outermost layer of the cell that acts as an adhesive, sticking adjacent plant cells together and gives the plant stability.
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starch
main energy storage in plants-amylose-long, unbranched chain of a-glucose,coils,compact for storage1-4glycosidic, amylopectin-long,branched chain of a-glucose,1-4,1-6gs,allow enzymes to be hydrolysed quickly-insoluble in water-therefore no osmotic ef
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cellulose
long,unbranched, b-glucose, 1-4 glycosidic,invert, link to form microfibrils, provide supportin a matrix
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Tensile strength
add fibre to a clamp stand, hang weights until it breaks and record mass needed to break it, the higher the mass, the higher the tensile strength, repeat-force/cross sectional area
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Plant fibres and starch in sustainability
things made of plants rather than plastic are more sustainable-less fossil fuels used up,biodegradable,easier to grow and process
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Antimicrobial properties
take extracts from mint, garlic,soak in ethanol,filter,place paper discs on agar plate with bacteria, lid on, invert, 25degrees, the clear zone-pi r ^2
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conditions for bacterial growth
nutrients, oxygen for aerobic resp, temp and PH
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Aseptic technique
prevents contamination-close windows and doors, disinfect area, bunsen burners, sterilisatio.
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William withering
foxgloves can be used to treat dropsy by digitalis-made chance observations using diff versions and conc of digitalis soup-too much poisoned them,too little had no effect-trial and error
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Modern drug testing 1
Computers model effects before testing on live subjects,and on human tissues in a lab, then on live animals before clinical trials.
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modern drug testing 2
phase 1-test drug on a small group of healthy people to find a safe dosage, side effects and how body reacts to drug. Phase 2-tested on a larger group of patients to see how well the drug works. Phase 3-compared with existing treatments-test on 1000s
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modern drug testing 3
of patients to make sure results are reliable-patients randomly split into 2 groups -one receives new treatment, the other an existing treatment to see if the new drug is better than existing treatments.
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placebos
in phase 2 patients are split into 2 groups and one is given the drug and the other a placebo-inactive substance that looks exactly the same-makes sure the drug actually works and is not just a psychological change.
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double blind study design
phase 2 and 3-neither patients nor doctors know who has the new drug or placebo/old drug. this reduces bias as the attitudes of patients and doctors can't affect results.
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biodiversity
the variety of living organisms in an area-species diversity-number of diff species and the abundance of each species in an area, genetic diversity-variation of alleles within a species.
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population
a group of organisms of the same same species living in a particular area.
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endemism
when a species is unique to a single place.
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natural selection
adaptation and evolution increasing biodiversity.
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Conservation
needed to help maintain biodiversity.
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species richness
The nnumber of different species in a given area.
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genetic diversity
variety of alleles in a gene pool of a species.
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heterozygosity index
h=number of heterozygotes/number of individuals in the population
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diversity index
D= N(N-1)/ sum of n(n-1)
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niche
a sepecies occupies within its habitat includes its interactions with other living organisms and interactions with non-living encironment.adapt through behavioural adaptations e.g possums play dead in danger, physiological adaptations e.g brown bears
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niche adaptations
hibernate and lower metabolism rate over winter and anatomical adaptations-otters have a streamlined shape to glide through water.
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hardy weinberg principle
p^2 +2pq +q^2=1 (p+q=1)
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classification
taxonomy involves naming organisms and organising them into groups based on sim and diff-domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
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five kingdoms
fungi,plantae,anamilia,protocista,prokaryotae
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conservation-seedbanks
store of lots of seeds from diff species of plant, conserve biodiversity by storing endangered plant seeds-cool., dry conditions, stored for a long time.
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evaluation of seedbanks
adv-cheaper than storing fully grown plants,large numbers,less labour, stored anywhere,less likely to be damaged than plants disad-testing for viability can be time consuming and expensive, can't store all types ,difficult to collect seeds remote loc
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conservation-zoos
captive breeding programmes-species that are endangered or extinct in the wild can be bred in zoos, however, they can have problems breeding outside natural habitat-some think it's cruel.
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reintroduction into wild
plants from seedbanks and animals from zoos can increase numbers in the wild, restores habitats however, it brings new diseases to habitats, harming other organisms and animals may not behave as normal.
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what is the cell wall

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Cell wall - made of cellulose(straight chain polysaccharide from b glucose)-insoluble in water. invert so glycosidic bonds for between c3 and 6

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how does the cell wall form

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Card 4

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what are vesicles

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Card 5

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what is the structure of a cell

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