EDEXCEL GCSE 9-1 COMBINED SCIENCE FOUNDATION: CHEMISTRY PAPER 1+2

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what is an element?
is a substance made from atoms with the same number of protons in the nucleus. Each element has its own chemical symbol, which: consists of one or two letters, starts with a chemical letter and has any other letters in lower case
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What is meant by the term ion?
An ion is a charged particle formed when an atom, or group of atoms, loses or gains electrons
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what is a compound?
a compound consists of two or more different elements chemically joined together
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what is an atom?
is the smallest particle of an element that still has its chemical properties
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what is a molecule?
A molecule consists of two or more atoms chemically joined together
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in a chemical reaction what are the reactants?
are the substances that undergo a chemical change in a reaction
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in a chemical reaction what are the products?
are the new substances formed
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what do state symbols show ?
show the physical state of each substance in a balanced equation
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What is the state symbol for Solid
(s)
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What is the state symbol for liquid
(l)
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what is the state symbol for gas
(g)
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what is the state symbol for aqueous solution
(aq)
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what is a hazard?
is something that could: cause damage or harm to someone or something, cause negative health effects which may occur immediately or later on
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what is a risk?
is the chance that someone or something will be exposed to a hazard. The amount of risk depends on factors such as: how much someone is exposed to a hazard, the way in which exposure happens and how series the effects of exposure are
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what are hazard symbols intended to do?
warn about the dangers of the substance in the container and let people know about the precautions to take when they use the substance
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what is a precaution?
is something that you can do to reduce the risk of harm from a hazard
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what do precautions include?
using smaller amounts of a hazardous substance, use protective clothing and using a different method or apparatus
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In 1803 who described the structure of the atom as a solid atom model: all atoms of an element are identical; different elements have different atoms
Dalton
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who discovers the electron in the atomic structure ?
Thomson , 1897
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In 1911 Rutherford described the structure of an atom using what model?
solar system model: atoms have a positive nucleus surrounded by negative electrons in orbit
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In 1913 Bohr described the structure of an atom using what model?
electron shell model: electrons occupy shells or energy levels around the nucleus
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who discovers the proton in the atomic structure?
Rutherford, 1918
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who discovers the neutron in the atomic structure?
Chadwick, 1932
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what does an atom consist of?
a central nucleus, which: contains protons and neutrons, is surrounded by electrons in shells
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each atom can be described by what?
its mass number, the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
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each atom can be described by what?
its atomic number, the number of protons in the nucleus
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atoms of a given element have ?
the same number of protons in the nucleus: all have the same atomic number, this number is unique to that element
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what are isotopes?
are atoms of an element with: the same number of protons and different numbers of neutrons
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how do you calculate the number of neutrons?
mass number- atomic number
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what do Ar values take into account?
the relative abundance or percentage of each isotope in a sample of an element. The existence of isotopes means that the Ar values of elements may not be whole numbers. Mass numbers can only be whole numbers.
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In Ar values why can only mass numbers be whole numbers?
this is because you can't have parts of protons or neutrons in an atom
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What is the relative charge for a proton?
+ 1
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What is the relative mass for a proton?
1
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What is the relative charge for a neutron?
0
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What is the relative mass for a neutron?
1
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What is the relative charge for a electron?
-1
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What is the relative mass for a electron?
1/1836
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Atoms have equal numbers of what?
protons and electrons. They have equal numbers of positive and negative charges, and so are neutral overall
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Electrons have very little what?
mass compared with protons and neutrons. Most of the mass of an atom is concentrated in its nucleus
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who's periodic table was successful and developed into the modern periodic table
Dimitri Mendleev's
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At first how did Mendeleev arrange the elements?
in order of relative atomic mass. However he reversed the position of some pairs of elements. This matched the properties of the elements and their compounds
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Mendeleev left gaps in his table. Explain the importance of doing this
The gaps were for elements not discovered then. Mendeleev used his table to predict the properties of these elements. When they were discovered later, their properties closely matched his predicted properties.
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what is the modern periodic table useful for?
describing and predicting properties of elements
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In Mendeleev's periodic table, atomic number was what?
just the position of an element in the table
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what did later discoveries show?
atomic number is actually the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
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what did later discoveries show?
each element has a unique atomic number
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what did later discoveries show?
if the elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number, Mendeleev's pair reversals are explained
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in the periodic table what are the horizontal rows called
periods
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in the periodic table metals are on the left-hand side and where
in the centre
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in the periodic table elements with similar properties are placed in the same what
vertical groups
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where are non-metals in the periodic table?
on the right-hand side
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what describes the arrangement of electrons in an atom?
electronic configuration
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In an atom electrons occupy what?
electron shells
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In an atom shells are filled, starting with what?
the innermost shell
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In an atom different shells hold what?
different maximum numbers of electrons
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What is an ion?
is an atom or a group of atoms with a positive or negative charge
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what is a cation?
a positively charged ion formed when an atom or group of atoms loses one or more electrons
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cations usually form from what?
hydrogen or metals: group 1 atoms lose 1 electron to form ions with one positive charge, Group 2 atoms lose 2 electrons to form ions with two positive charges
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what is an anion?
a negatively charged ion formed when an atom or group of atoms gains one or more electrons
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anions usually form from what?
non-metals: Group 7 atoms gain 1 electron to form ions with one negative charge, Group 6 atoms gain 2 electrons to form ions with two negative charges
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what does an ion's name depend on?
the charge and whether the ion also contains oxygen. Compound ions contain atoms of two different elements
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what is the formula for Hydrogen
H+
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what is the formula for Lithium (group 1)
Li+
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what is the formula for Sodium (group 1)
Na+
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what is the formula for Potassium (group 1)
K+
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what is the formula for Magnesium (group 2)
K+
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what is the formula for Calcium (group 2)
Ca2+
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what is the formula for Barium (group 2)
Ba2+
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what is the formula for Aluminium (group 3)
Al3+
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what is the formula for Silver (transition metal)
Ag+
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what is the formula for Copper (transition metal)
Cu2+
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what is the formula for Zinc (transition metal)
Zn2+
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what is the formula for Iron II (transition metal)
Fe2+
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what is the formula for Iron III (transition metal)
Fe3+
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what is the formula for Ammonium (compound ion)
NH4+
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Negatively charged ions formed from single non-metal atoms take the name of the element but end in what?
-ide
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Negatively charged ions in compounds containing three or more elements, one of which is oxygen end in what?
-ate
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what is the formula for Fluoride (group 7)
F-
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what is the formula for Chloride (group 7)
Cl-
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what is the formula for Bromide (group 7)
Br-
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what is the formula for Iodide (group 7)
I-
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what is the formula for Oxide (group 6)
O2-
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what is the formula for Sulfide (group 6)
S2-
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what is the formula for Nitrate (compound ion)
NO3-
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what is the formula for Carbonate (compound ion)
CO3 2-
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what is the formula for Sulfate (compound ion)
SO4 2-
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what is the formula for Hydroxide (compound ion)
OH-
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Ionic bonds are what?
strong electrostatic forces of attraction between oppositely charged ions
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The ions in a ionic compound from a what ?
lattice structure which has: a regular arrangement of ions and ionic bonds are between oppositely charged ions
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Ionic compounds usually have what?
high melting points and high boiling points
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Ionic compounds are often what?
soluble in water. They dissolve to form aqueous solutions
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An electric current is a flow of charge. A substance will conduct electricity if what?
it contains charge carriers (such as ions), these charge carriers are free to move through the substance
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State why sodium chloride does not conduct electricity when it is in the solid state
The ions are not free to move around in a solid
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Explain why sodium chloride does conduct electricity when it is molten or in aqueous solution
The ions are free to move around when sodium chloride is liquid or when it is dissolved in water. This means they can carry electric charge from place to place
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Covalent bonds are what
are strong, form between non-metal atoms and often produce molecules, which can be elements or compounds
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What does a Simple Molecular consist of?
just a few atoms, joined to each other by strong covalent bonds.
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What can Simple Molecular substances be?
non-metal elements and compounds of non-metals
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What do Simple Molecular substances usually have?
low melting points, low boiling points
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What state are simple molecular substances are at room temperature?
gas or liquid state
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Simple Molecular Substances do not conduct electricity when they are solid, liquid or gas. Why is this?
This is because their molecules: are not electrically charged and do not contain electrons that are free to move
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Most simple molecular substances do not conduct electricity when in a solution. However ?
some of them such as acids break down when they dissolve form ions and these ions can move around so the solution conducts electricity
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What are intermolecular forces?
there a weak attractive forces between molecules, called intermolecular forces
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Many simple molecular substances are insoluble in water. The intermolecular forces between water and these substances are what?
weaker than those between water molecules and molecules of the substance itself
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Simple molecular substances dissolve in water if they can form what?
enough strong intermolecular forces with water molecules: hydrogen and oxygen are sparingly soluble (very little dissolves), chlorine + carbon dioxide+ sulfor dioxide + ammonia are soluble, ethanol + ethanoic acid are soluble and sugar is soluble
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A giant molecule consists of many atoms. In giant molecules, the atoms are what?
arranged in a regular lattice structure and are joined by strong covalent bonds
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What can giant molecular substances be?
non-metal elements such as carbon, compounds such as silica
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What do giant molecular substances usually have?
high melting points and high boiling points
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What are giant molecular substances at room temperature?
solids. A lot of energy must be transferred to break the many strong covalent bonds during melting and boiling. Giant molecular substances are insoluble in water.
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Graphite is used to make electrodes because it conducts electricity. Explain why graphite conducts electricity.
A carbon atom can form four covalent bonds. But in graphite each carbon atom only forms three covalent bonds. The non-bonding outer electrons become delocalised. This means they can move through the structure, so graphite conducts electricity.
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What are Graphene and fullerenes forms of?
carbon that exists as giant molecules
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What is Graphene?
Graphene is a giant molecular substance. Its structure resembles a single layer of graphite: each carbon atom is covalently bonded to three other carbon atoms and it has a regular lattice structure
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What do fullerences resemble?
a sheet of graphene rolled to form hollow balls often called buckyballs and hollow tubes called carbon nanotubes
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materials made from buckyballs conduct electricity because they have delocalised electrons and are what?
soft when in the solid state because they have weak intermolecular forces
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Nanotubes have closed ends or open ends. They can be several mm long. Nanotubes can do what and are what?
can conduct electricity because they have delocalised electrons and are very strong because the structure has many strong covalent bonds
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What are polymers?
Polymers are large molecules made from many smaller molecules, called monomers, joined together
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Graphene conducts electricity:
the non-bonding outer shell
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What is the appearance of metals?
shiny
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What is the appearance of non-metals?
dull
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What is the electrical conduction of metals?
good conductors
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What is the electrical conduction of non-metals?
poor conductors
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What is the density of metals?
high
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What is the density of non-metals?
low
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What is the melting point of metals?
high
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What is the melting points of non-metals?
low
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Describe what a metal has?
consists of a giant lattice of positively charged metal ions and has a "sea" of delocalised electrons. The delocalised electrons come from the outer shells of the atoms.
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What are Metallic bonds?
are strong electrostatic forces of attraction between positive metal ions and delocalised electrons
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metals are what?
malleable- they can be pressed into shape without shattering
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non-metals are what?
brittle in the solid state- they shatter when bent or hit
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According to the law of conservation of mass, the total mass of reactants and products stays constant during a chemical reaction. The total mass before and after a reaction is what?
the same
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What is a closed system?
is a situation in which no substance can enter or leave during a reaction
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What do closed systems include?
reactions in a sealed container such as a flask fitted with a bung and precipitation reactions in a beaker
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In a precipitation reaction, two soluble reactants form an insoluble product which is?
the precipitate
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What is a non-closed system?
is a situation in which substances can enter or leave during a reaction
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What does a non-closed systems include ?
reactions in a open flask, where a substance in the gas state may enter or leave
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Mass is conserved, but you will observe the following:
the mass of a reactive metal increases if it is heated in air this is because oxygen atoms combine with metal ions to form a metal oxide.
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The mass of a reactive non-metal or fuel decreases if it is what?
heated in air. This is because products in the gas state escape from the container
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The mass of a metal carbonate decreases if it is what?
heated. This is because carbon dioxide gas is produced and this escapes from the container
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What is a Solution?
is a mixture of a solute in a solvent
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What is the Solute?
is the substance that dissolves
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What is the Solvent?
is the substance that the solute dissolves in
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How do you calculate concentration?
concentration= mass of solute (g) divided by volume of solution (dm^3)
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An ion is a charged particle formed when an atom, or group of atoms, loses or gains electrons

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