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Sentence 1

Executive functions are higher order cognitive processes that enable individuals to organise their thoughts, actions and emotions, allowing them to complete complex tasks (Escolano-Pérez et al., 2017).

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Sentence 2

They include different processes such as working memory, inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility

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Sentence 3

Reasoning is the process of drawing new conclusions that inform problem-solving and decision-making actions (Leighton, 2004)

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Sentence 4

The different types of reasoning that will be covered in this essay are mental-state reasoning, counterfactual reasoning and symbolic reasoning

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Sentence 5

3-year-olds could have difficulties on reasoning tasks because of factors including poor executive function, linguistic demands or poor Theory of Mind (ToM).

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Sentence 6

Although there is evidence for each of these reasons, I argue that poor ToM is the main source of 3-year-olds’ difficulties with reasoning tasks and therefore I disagree with the claim given.

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Sentence 7

There are some studies that have shown a relationship between executive function and mental-state reasoning task performance.

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Sentence 8

For example, 3-year-olds who have got better inhibitory control tend to do better on measures of false belief (Carlson & Moses, 2001).

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Sentence 9

False belief tasks assess mental-state reasoning

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Sentence 10

Therefore, this evidence gives support to the claim given because it suggests that 3-year-olds’ difficulty with mental-state reasoning tasks could be because of poor inhibitory control

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Sentence 11

However, although inhibitory control might help 3-year-olds to suppress an incorrect response, it is not an adequate way of fully understanding mental states in other people

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Sentence 12

Although, evidence has shown that executive function predicts which 3-year-olds get better on false belief tasks with training, suggesting that executive function is needed for an explicit understanding of beliefs (Benson et al., 2012).

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Sentence 13

However, a relatively small sample was used in this study and thus this may decrease the generalisability of the findings

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Sentence 14

Therefore, I argue that poor executive function is a minor explanatory factor in accounting for 3-year-olds’ difficulty with mental-state reasoning tasks.

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Sentence 15

Mental-state reasoning tasks, such as false belief tasks, assess ToM

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Sentence 16

A child’s understanding that another person holds a false belief gives plausible evidence for understanding the difference between mind and world (Wellman et al., 2001).

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Sentence 17

Thus, 3-year-olds’ difficulty on mental-state reasoning tasks is likely due to poor ToM

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Sentence 18

In The Unexpected Transfer Task, a character is introduced to the child and an event happens that the character witnesses, which leads the character to have a belief.

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Sentence 19

The character then leaves the scene.

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Sentence 20

Then, a second event, which isn’t seen by the character, happens and this makes the belief they had false

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Sentence 21

The character then returns, and the child is firstly asked a memory question and then a question about the character’s belief.

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Sentence 22

3-year-olds tend to get the control (memory) question right, but get the test (belief) question wrong (Wimmer & Perner, 1983).

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Sentence 23

This suggests that 3-year-olds do not have a flexible understanding of mental states

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Sentence 24

The 3-year-olds have to use ToM to perform well in this task, because the belief is different to current reality.

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Sentence 25

However, this task also has some linguistic demands, which could play a part in the 3-year-olds’ difficulty.

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Sentence 26

Therefore, I would argue that poor ToM is an important – but not the only – cause of 3-year-olds' difficulty on mental-state reasoning tasks.

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Sentence 27

3-year-olds who have poor ToM perform poorly on counterfactual reasoning tasks.

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Sentence 28

In a counterfactual reasoning task, 3-year-olds were tested on a series of stories where they were asked to re-imagine the stories with one thing changed

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Sentence 29

It was found that only 47% of 3-year-olds responded correctly.

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Sentence 30

The children also performed similarly poorly on a standard ToM test (Riggs et al., 1998)

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Sentence 31

In another counterfactual reasoning task, named the ‘Screen Task’, 3-year-olds are firstly shown a box and a basket, and a marble is put into the box.

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Sentence 32

A screen then hides these objects

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Sentence 33

Next, a duplicate box and basket are put in front of the screen.

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Sentence 34

A marble is put into the duplicate box, and subsequently moved to the duplicate basket.

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Sentence 35

The 3-year-olds are then asked where the marble is behind the screen.

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Sentence 36

To succeed in this task, the children have to dismiss a present, noticeable situation and base their answer on a less noticeable situation.

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Sentence 37

3-year-olds are unsuccessful on this task (Roth & Leslie, 1998)

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Sentence 38

ToM may be needed for success on this counterfactual reasoning task because it requires the ability to think about more than a single perspective.

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Sentence 39

This suggests that 3-year-olds find counterfactual reasoning tasks difficult because they have poor ToM

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Sentence 40

Therefore, I argue that poor ToM is the most important determinant of 3-year-olds' difficulty on counterfactual reasoning tasks.

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Sentence 41

Pretend play may rely on an understanding of ToM (Astington & Jenkins, 1995)

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Sentence 42

The symbolic foundations of pretend play have been established (Piaget, 1962).

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Sentence 43

There is a substantial improvement in ToM between the ages of 3 to 5, (Astington et al., 1988), and this is correlated with pretend play (Astington & Jenkins, 1995)

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Sentence 44

Pretend play involves a child portraying their mental representation of a pretend situation or object on to the real world (Lillard, 1993).

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Sentence 45

Therefore, ToM seems key to the development of symbolic reasoning.

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Sentence 50

Therefore, I argue that poor ToM is the most important determinant of 3-year-olds' difficulty on symbolic reasoning tasks.

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Sentence 51

In conclusion, there is evidence that 3-year-olds with better executive function perform better on mental-state reasoning tasks.

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Sentence 52

However, mental-state reasoning tasks directly assess ToM so it seems likely that poor ToM can explain the majority of 3-year-olds' difficulty on these tasks

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Sentence 53

Linguistic demands can also play a minor part

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Sentence 54

Other reasoning tasks involve an understanding of ToM, and 3-year-olds with poor ToM tend to do poorly on reasoning tasks.

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Sentence 55

Therefore, although there is some evidence that poor executive function & linguistic demands can account for 3-year-olds' difficulty with reasoning tasks, in my opinion poor ToM can explain the majority of difficulties that 3-year-olds have on reason

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