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what is the aim?

a broad statement of the purpose of the research i.e what the researcher would like to find out

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what is the experimental hypothesis?

a testable statement that a piece if research attempts to support or reject.

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what is a directional hypothesis?

predicts that the IV will affect the DV in one specific direction. It allows for only one outcome. E.g noise (IV) will lead to fewer words being recalled (DV)

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What is a non-directional hypothesis?

predicts the IV will affect the DV, but does not state a specific direction for the results. it allows for more than one outcome. E.g. Noise (IV) will effect the recall of words (DV)

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what is the null hypothesis?

the null suggests there will be no causal relationship between the IV and the DV (co-variables), any relationship in the results is due to chance, rather than due to the IV

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What is the Independent variable (IV)?

the variable the psychologist manipulates and controls to see how it effects behaviour (DV).

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What is the dependent variable (DV)?

The DV is the variable which is measured (usually the ups behaviour) which is effected by the IV.

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What is operationalisation?

giving a precise definition of the behaviour being manipulated/observed/measured (IV/DV). Both the IV and the DV should be operationlised This allows for repatition and raises reliability as an agreed value has been attributed to the measurement. .

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What are co-variables?

the two variables that may/may not change with each other. e.g.as one increases so does the other in a correlation

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what are extraneous variables?

These are variables in a study that are not being measured or manipulated by the researcher but effect the results (DV) of ALL the participants behaviour equally. E.g. the setting to timing of the study

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what are confounding variables?

things in a study, other then the IV, which might affect SOME participants behaviours (DV). E.g. dyslexia

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what is internal reliability?

the extent to which a test or measure is consistent within itself e.g. the use of standardised instructions and procedures for all apps.

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What is external reliability?

the extent to which a test produces consistent results over several occasions

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what are the 3 methods of testing reliability?

the split-half method, the test-retest method, and inter-rater reliability.

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what is the split half method- testing for reliabilty?

involves splitting pps test answers in half and seeing whether they got the same/similar scores on the two halves. If so, internal reliability is high, if not it is low and questions will need to be redesigned.

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what is the test-retest method- testing for reliability?

involves testing and retesting the same participants over time, with same test and comparing scores. if the scores are the same the test has external reliability, however if no the questions will need to be redesigned.

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what is inter-rater reliability- testing for reliability?

where 2 or more psychologists produce consistent results by using a standardised procedure, agreed coding system, or correlation of their data.

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what is internal validity?

the findings are accurate and the effects on the DV are caused by the IV. Therefore the study measures what it intends to measure (as confounding variables have been controlled and will not affect the results).

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what is external validity?

wether the study paints a true picture of real life behaviours (e.g. if the tasks have mundane realism) and whether the findings would apply to different places, different times, or different people (population validity).

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what is researcher bias?

where the researcher either directly or indirectly influences the results of a study, through the process of designing the study or through the way the research is conducted/analysed.

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what are demand characteristics?

a type of confounding variable where participants unconsciously work out the aim and act differently (either through social desirability or the screw you effect)

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what is social desirability bias?

where the ops gives the response that they think will show them in the best possible light. This may mean that they are not a true reflection of their real thoughts or feelings.

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what is face validity- testing validity?

the least sophisticated measure of validity. It is whether the test appears (at face value) to measure what it claims to, and hence is subjective. tests where the purpose is clear even to naive respondents, are said to have high face validity.

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what is content validity- testing validity?

This objectively checks the method of measuring behaviour is accurate and decides wether it is a fair test that achieves the aims of the study (internal validity). Ask an EXPERT in that specific area to check the test is valid

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what is predictive validity- testing validity?

the degree to which a test accurately predicts the future outcome on a more broadly related topic. Do the findings apply in different and more varied situations? E.g. do this with a higher IQ gain higher grades in exams?

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what is concurrent validity- testing validity?

validating a measurement by comparing it with an established measurement that has know validity. If similar results occur on both tests, then the new test has concurrent validity. If not, then the new test would have to be redesigned and tested.

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what is construct validity- testing validity?

looks at the extent to which a test measures the intended theoretical construct or definitions of that overall behaviour, most sophisticated test of validity as looks wether overall result reflects the external validity. check existing definitions.

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define- laboratory environment

the lab is equipped to allow scientific research and measurement. Conditions and variables are controlled and procedures are standardised.

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advantages of research being conducted in a lab environment

greater control over confounding/extraneous variables which makes research easier to replicate (increasing reliability) & allows the use of large equipment that would not be accessible in the field.

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Disadvantages of research being conducted in a lab environment

may result in artificial behaviour because the surroundings are artificial (low external validity) & some behaviours cannot be studied in a lab environment, limiting its use.

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define- in the field

psychologists conduct research outside of the lab, in a natural setting (e.g. school, hospital). Several methods can be conducted in the field e.g. observations, field experiments, interviews etc.

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advantages of research being conducted in the field

minimises the artificial nature or research meaning ups should behave more naturally (high external validity) & more behaviours can be studied in the field then in a lab and there is less chance of demand characteristics/social desirability bias.

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disadvantages of research being conducted in the field

Lower levels of control over confounding variables/ extraneous variables which makes replications difficult, lowering reliability & can also be unethical if pps are unaware of the study (lack of valid consent)

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define- online research

ups are accessed via the internet/social networks/ mobile apps etc. Often involves questionnaires but can also be experimental.

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advantages of research being conducted online

large number of apps from a range of backgrounds can be accessed & cost effective and data analysis is generally quicker as responses are already transcribed in electronic format.

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disadvantages of research being conducted online

often limited to questionnaires and can cause ethical issues such as valid consent, risk of harm etc. Debriefing is also difficult in online research.

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the method of a lab experiment

research which involves manipulation of the IV in artificial lab conditions. PPS are randomly allocated to each condition

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advantages of the method of a lab experiment ?

high on reliability as it studies cause and effect of a manipulated IV on the DV in a controlled lab environment, and is repeatable and consistent

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disadvantages of the method of a lab experiment ?

low in ecological validity as the setting and tasks are artificial (lack mundane realism), thus results may not paint a true picture.

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what is a quasi experiment ?

involves research where the experimenter has NOT deliberately manipulated the IV and apps are NOT randomly allocated.

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what is a natural experiment and difference studies? (quasi experiment)

a natural experiment is when the IV arises naturally although the DV can still be measured in a lab & difference studies are where the IV arises naturally and does not vary- it is just a difference that exists between people e.g. gender

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what is an advantage of quasi experiments?

High on ecological validity as it studies the effect of a naturally occurring IV on a DV and thus paints a true picture of behaviour.

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what is a disadvantage of quasi experiments?

low on reliability because the lack of control over the IV means that confounding/extraneous variables could affect the results and replication might be difficult. Causal conclusions are therefore not guaranteed.

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what are correlational studies?

look at the relationship between 2 or more co-variables. produces a scatter diagram to consider the strength and dirrection of relationship

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what is an advantage of correlational studies?

enables one to investigate trends in data, which lead to further investigation into wether the relationship between co-variables is causal. & high reliability as they use standardised format that can be easily repeated and retested.

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what is a disadvantage of correlational studies?

does not account for the fact that a third/confounding variable might account for any relationship found, making results invalid. & does not establish cause and effect between co-variables.

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what is participant observation (PO)?

involves taking on the role of a pps and observing others around you. (More likely to be covert)

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what is an advantage of participant observation?

high validity as researcher can gain 'insider' information, thus painting a true picture of behaviour that may not otherwise be observed. & pps unaware their being observed so won't alter behaviour (social desirability bias/ demand characteristics).

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what is a disadvantage of participant observation?

researcher bias can be a problem, especially if categories are not operationalised before study- lack of objectivity & covert observation is likely to create ethical issues- valid consent, right to withdraw, deception, and risk to apps privacy

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what is non-participant observation (NPO)?

involves watching and recording apps behaviour without interfering in any way, usually in a real life setting. (More likely to be overt)

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what is an advantage of non-participant observation?

high ecological validity as watching pps in their natural environment should paint a true picture of behaviour & more objective then PO as the researcher is not part of the group being observed

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what is a disadvantage of non-participant obeservation?

can be unethical, especially if cps do not know that they are being observed (lack of valid consent) or why the observation is taking place (deception)

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what is content analysis?

involves the exploration of material (usually qualitative data) to see what categories, codes or themes emerge, and tallying each time material fits a theme.

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what is an advantage of content analysis?

useful because these methods simplify complex behaviour into groupings, allowing patterns and trends (quantitative data) to emerge from qualitative data.

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what is a disadvantage of content analysis?

researcher bias can be a problem because the researcher operationalises the behavioural categories and codes, and records the behaviour in the way he/she wants, which is likely to be subjective.

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what are the 3 types of self-reporting techniques?

questionnaires, structure interviews and semi-structure interviews

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what are questionnaires?

are a list of written questions, closed and/or open questions.

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what is an advantage of using questionnaires?

high reliability as they use a standardised format that can easily be repeated and retested & can be redistributed to large numbers of people fairly cheaply and quickly.

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what is a disadvantage of using questionnaires?

low validity as people may lie due to social desirability bias, meaning the results do not necessarily paint a true picture of behaviour

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what is structured interview?

includes standardised questions (like in a questionnaire) that are asked face to face

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what is an advantage of structured interview ?

high reliability due to standardised format that can easily be repeated and retested

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what is a disadvantage of structure interview?

interviewer bias - interviewers expectations may influence the answers given through social desirability bias

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what is semi-structured interview?

involve asking pps questions, usually face to face. These can be in the form of an interview schedule, but could also include follow up questions to expand on answers of the questions asked.

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what is an advantage of semi-structured interviews?

provides depth and detail as talking to a pp should reveal a true picture of behaviour through qualitative data gained in follow up questions.

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what is a disadvantage of semi-structured interviews?

interviewer bias- interviews expectations may influence the answers given & questions may need to be developed on the spot, lowering the objectivity.

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what are case studies?

they are detailed research study of just one pp, or a small group of people, that creates qualitative data. They are often longitudinal studies.

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what is an advantage of case studies?

high on validity as it enables the researcher to study the pp in depth and detail, revealing a true picture of an individuals/ groups behaviour (ideographic)

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what is a disadvantage of case studies?

unreliable as behaviour could be misinterpreted (researcher bias) and it is difficult to generalise to others.

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what is a longitudinal study?

they are studies which are conducted over a long period of time in order to observe long-term effects on behaviour.

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what is an advantage of a longitudinal study?

control over participants variables as a repeated measures design is often used, increasing reliability. & produce depth and detail (qualitative data)

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what is a disadvantage of a longitudinal study?

ups may become aware of the research aims and may alter their behaviour (social desirability bias and demand characteristics) & time consuming therefore costly, often with an inevitable dropout rate.

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what is a cross-sectional study?

they involve comparing one group of apps representing a cross- section of society against another at the same point in time

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what is an advantage of cross-sectional studies?

ups are less likely to become aware of the research aims as an independent group design is often used & relatively quick therefore cheaper then longitudinal study

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what is a disadvantage of cross-sectional studies?

differences between groups may be due to participant variables rather than the IV, reducing reliability

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what are brain scans?

they involve taking images of the living brain to investigate the brain function (e.g.'s include PET, MRI, CAT).

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what is an advantage of brain scans?

useful for revealing abnormal structures/chemical information in the brain & high or reliability as they use a standardised format that can be easily repeated and retested.

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what is a disadvantage of brain scans?

can be costly and unethical as pps are exposed to radiation (PET and CAT) & can also take Time and be uncomfortable for the patient (MRI)

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what is Independent groups -research design?

when separate groups of pps complete different conditions in a study e.g. one group complete a task outdoors and the other complete a task indoors

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what is an advantage of independent groups?

no demand characteristics as no pp will do both conditions so they cannot compare, pick up cues and guess the hypothesis & order effects will also be eliminated (including practice effect and fatigue)

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what is a disadvantage of independent groups and how to deal with it?

individual differences are not controlled or kept constant across the two conditions and More pps needed then repeated measure design to gather same amount of detail - randomly allocate pps evenly distributes confounding variables & use matched pairs

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what are matched pairs-research design?

type of independent groups design where pps are matched by characteristics that are relevant to the study. one member of the pair completes one condition and the other completes the second condition

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what is an advantage of matched pairs?

no demand characteristics as no pp will complete both conditions can't guess hypothesis & confounding variables controlled & order effects eliminated (practice/bordem effect)

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what is a disadvantage of matched pairs and how to deal with them?

can be time consuming and difficult to match pps & not possible to match all variables between pps - restrict number of variables to make matching easier/quicker and conduct a pilot study to find key variables which effect the results.

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what is repeated measures- research design?

all pps complete each conditions of the study and then performance/behaviour is compared across the different tasks.

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what is an advantage of repeated measures design?

individual difference such as IQ, weight etc are controlled and kept constant across both conditions- reduces chance of confounding variables & fewer pps are required to complete the study.

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what is the disadvantage of repeated measures design and how to deal with them?

demand characteristics may arise as pps may guess the hypothesis due to completing twice & order effects may effect performance (practice/boredom effect)-remain vague about purpose of study & use counterbalancing or use 2 tasks of similar difficulty

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what is the target population?

The group of individuals that a researcher is interested in studying e.g. people in the uk

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what is the sampling frame?

a smaller group that is identified when it is unrealistic to study the whole target population e.g. people in Leicestershire

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what is self-selected (volunteer) sampling?

pps select themselves for research e.g. volunteer after reading an advertisement in a newspaper or on a notice board

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what is an advantage of self-selected sampling?

avoids researcher bias as they do not select sample themselves &can be less time consuming as pps do not have to be categorised into strata.

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what is a disadvantage of self-selected sampling?

could be effected by population bias as the type of people who volunteer tend not to be representative e.g. only extroverts, or people with spare time volunteer

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what is opportunity sampling?

pps selected at the researcher's convenience without knowing any details about the sample in advance e.g picking people who were there at the time, in your specific location

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what is an advantage of opportunity sampling?

easy and quick to do compared to other sampling methods as just pick people at convenience there is no need to know details about the person or divide into strata

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what is a disadvantage of opportunity sampling?

could be effected by Bias (researcher or population) as it is likely that pps are taken from a small part of the target population. results may not be representative of the target population making generalisations difficult.

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what is random sampling?

pps are selected from the sampling frame, where everyone has an equal chance of being selected e.g. names are pulled from a hat

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what is an advantage of random sampling?

avoid researcher bias as all members of target population have an equal chance of being picked

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what is a disadvantage of random sampling?

could still be effected by bias as the random sample might select similar types of people by chance (who may not want to participate anyway), so the results may not be representative of the target population

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what is quota sampling?

target population is divided into subgroups e.g by sex and the pps are selected randomly from each subgroup at the convenience of the researcher i.e by opportunity sampling

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what is an advantage of quota sampling?

more representative compared to oppurtunity sampling as you can divide people into subgroups first so that the results can be generalised

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what is a disadvantage of quota sampling?

could still be effected by Bia (researcher/population) as not everyone in each subgroup has an equal chance of being selected, so the results may not be representative of the target population

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what is stratified sampling?

traget population is divided into subgroups, e.g. sex, and then pps are selected randomly from each subgroup

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what is an advantage of stratified sampling?

tends to be more representative than other sampling methods as you divide people into subgroups then randomly sample from the sub groups, enabling you to generalise the results

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what is a disadvantage of stratified sampling?

slow and complicated because you have to divid the target population into subgroups, before randomly selecting the sample and contacting them & those selected may not want to participate- meaning quota/ strata are not filled

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what is systematic sampling?

selecting every nth person on the list of target population e.g from an electoral roll, or every nth household on a street

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what is an advantage of systematic sampling?

avoids researcher Bias as you pick every nth person objectively from a list or register. The researcher does not influence the pps chosen

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what is a disadvantage of systematic sampling?

could be effected by bias as every nth person might be male/old/young etc. and not everyone on the list has an equal chance of being in the sample so may not be representative.

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what is snowball sampling?

current pps recruit further pps from people they know, therefore the sample group appears to snowball

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what is an advantage of snowball sampling?

enables the research to locate pps who may be usually difficult to access e.g. drug addicts

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what is a disadvantage of snowball sampling?

could be affected by bias as the sample is not likely to provide a cross-section from the target population because it includes friends of friends

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what is the 2 types of observational sampling techniques?

time sampling and event sampling

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what is time sampling?

pps are observed during specific time periods e.g. every 10 mins in an hour. The specific behaviour is tallied at each interval and then the average is taken from across the intervals

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what is an advantage of time sampling?

allows behaviour to be observed that occur too frequently for efficient event sampling and gives ab indication of how frequently behaviour may occur over a long period of time

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what is a disadvantage of time sampling?

behaviours are likely to be missed (especially if they are infrequent) meaning the observation may not be representative

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what is event sampling?

pps are observed carrying out particular events/activities e.g. picking their nose

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what is an advantage of event sampling?

behaviours are less likely to be missed, making it a better sampling method then time sampling

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what is a disadvantage of event sampling?

difficult to record all behaviours if too many observations/events happen at once

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what is quantitative data?

data that can be measured numerically by the psychologist, so that statistical analysis can be completed e.g. IQ test scores

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what is an advantage and disadvantage of quantitative data

:)- tends to be objective and scientific meaning comparisons easily made & :( - data lacks depth and detail of emotions, feelings etc and is time consuming to analyse statistically

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what is qualitative data?

data that can be observed, but not measured numerically. usually takes the form of words/thoughts/feeling

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what is an advantage and disadvantage of qualitative data?

:)- gives depth and detail on emotions and feelings and patterns can be identified for quantitative study & :(- difficult to analyse and analysis is subjective because it is effected by the researchers point of view

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what is primary data?

data that is collected directly by the researcher as apart as part of the investigation

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