Cognitive Psychology

Apperceptive Agnosia

can usually describe individual elements of an object. They can see objects form and features, but they seem unable to "bind" individual components together into a meaningful whole

1 of 264

Associative Agnosia

unable to link percepts to meaning. Impairment in recognition or assigning meaning to a stimulus that is accurately perceived and not associated with a generalised deficit in intelligence, memory, language or attention

2 of 264

Prosopagnosia

a condition mostly caused by brain damage in which there is a severe impairment in face recognition but less impairment of object recognition; also known as face blindness

3 of 264

Perceptual load

high load tasks --> less distraction (reduces attentional control) --> makes us more distractible. Have to control self cognitively

4 of 264

Cognitive Load

(working memory demands) high load tasks --> more distraction

5 of 264

Attentional Systems

Posner 1980

6 of 264

Endogenous System

Controlled by the individual's and expectations; voluntary, goal-directed, slow, conscious process

7 of 264

Exogenous system

involuntary, stimulus-driven rapid. Shifts attention when peripheral cues are uninformative. Turns to salient/task relevant cues

8 of 264

Attentional systems

Corbetta and Shulman 2002

9 of 264

1. Goal directed top-down network (endogenous)

dorsal fronto-parietal network. influenced by knowledge, expectation and current goals

10 of 264

Stimulus-driven, bottom-up network (exogenous)

right ventral fronto-parietal network. Responds to unexpected stimuli

11 of 264

NEGLECT

lack of conscious awareness of stimuli presented to the side of space on the opposite side of the brain injury

12 of 264

Subject-centred (egocentric neglect)

little or no conscious awareness of stimuli on the contralateral side of the visual field

13 of 264

Object-centred (allocentric neglect)

lack of conscious awareness of the left side of objects rather than simply the left side of the visual field (regardless of what visual field its in)

14 of 264

Extinction

a stimulus is presented in the contralateral visual field is not detected when another stimulus is presented at the same time to in the ipsilateral visual field

15 of 264

Phoneme

smallest unit of language that changes the meaning of a spoken signal (bad, bat, bed)

16 of 264

Morpheme

smallest unit of language that actually carries meaning (table, tables, for, listened, unnecessary)

17 of 264

Mental Lexicon

mental dictionary/vocabulary of all words an individual stores in their semantic memory

18 of 264

speech perception

the most important form of auditory perception

19 of 264

Categorical speech

speech sounds on the boundaries of a phoneme as perceived as one or the other phoneme

20 of 264

Coarticulation

phonemic context influences the speech sound

21 of 264

The McGurk effect

perceptual phenomenon that demonstrates an interaction between hearing and vision in speech perception. The auditory component of one sound is paired with the visual component of another sound.

22 of 264

Bottom-up factors

Phonotactic knowledge: we are sensitive to the phonetic rules of our language

23 of 264

Top-down factors (context a knowledge of words)

Lexical cues: sentence context (a door; adore)

24 of 264

Motor theory of speech perception (Liberman, 1960's)

We use the articulatory mechanisms for speech perception, speech perception and speech production rely on the same specialised representation

25 of 264

Trace Model (McClelland and Elman, 1980)

connectionist model of speech perception, takes various sources of information found in speech and integrate them to identify single words. There are individual processing units or nodes at three different levels; features, phonemes and words

26 of 264

Facilitatory

connections between levels operate in both directions

27 of 264

inhibitory

there are connections among units or nodes at the same level

28 of 264

Cohort Model

mapping of auditory information onto words that exist in the mental lexicon. The process begins with mapping the first phoneme or segment onto all possible pre-existing words in the mental lexicon

29 of 264

Wernicke's aphasia

fluent speech but incomprehensible; difficulty understanding speech

30 of 264

Broca's aphasia

speech is non-fluent and effortful comprehension is relatively well retained

31 of 264

The three route model of speech perception

Route 1 and 2: familiar words, Route 3: unfamiliar words and non-words

32 of 264

pure word deafness

impaired speech perception for words and non-words, not a hearing deficit, other sounds are usually perceived, speech production, reading and writing is not affected

33 of 264

word meaning deafness

using route 2 predominantly: can repeat familiar words well, but without knowing their meaning --> impaired auditory comprehension, but intact written comprehension = semantic system is intact, but can't be accessed from auditory input

34 of 264

transcortical sensory aphasia

using route 3 primarily or exclusively: repeat words and non-words but without comprehending and understanding meaning. Reading comprehension is also often impaired = semantic system is impaired too

35 of 264

Deep dysphasia

extensive difficulty including speech perception, cannot repeat spoken words or non-words, semantic errors to spoken word repetition; sky instead of cloud. Reading of words and non-words are relatively well-preserved

36 of 264

Stages of speech production

semantic, syntactic, morphological, phonological

37 of 264

speech errors

our errors tend to be systematic --> can gain insight into the cognitive processes involved in speech production

38 of 264

Spoonerism

initial letters of two words are switched

39 of 264

Semantic substitution errors

where is my tennis bat? (racquet)

40 of 264

Morpheme exchange errors

he has already trunked two packs

41 of 264

Dell's Model

processing is parallel across the different stages; interactive and flexible

42 of 264

Dell's Model (2)

four levels of activity; semantic (meaning), syntactic (grammatical structure of words in the planned sentence), morphological (basic units of meaning or word forms), phonological (sounds)

43 of 264

Mixed error

the incorrect word is both semantically and phonetically related to the correct word (non-nun-priest)

44 of 264

Exchange errors

because once selected the words activation turns to zero

45 of 264

Anticipatory errors

when a speech sound is made too early (increase with practise and age)

46 of 264

Preservatory erros

sounds of a word are spoken later than they should have been

47 of 264

Levelt's model

processing is serial: feed-forward system from meaning to utterance

48 of 264

Lemma

word representation in the lexicon that only have a syntactic and semantic but not phonological component

49 of 264

Coltheart's dual route cascade model of reading

more than a single route to the semantic representation of a word

50 of 264

Non-lexical route (route 1)

grapheme-phoneme conversion system

51 of 264

Lexical look-up route (route 2 and 3)

reading non-words only possible through route 1, normally we use all routes when we read

52 of 264

Route 1 only (grapheme to phoneme)

accurate pronunciation of words with regular spellings and non-words, inaccuracies with irregular words; over-regularisations = surface dyslexia

53 of 264

Route 2

Reading accesses the lexicon (stored written representation of a word) and the semantic system (meaning)

54 of 264

Route 3

reading accesses the lexicon but not the semantic system. Using on these: difficulty pronouncing unfamiliar and non-words = phonological dyslexia. difficulty pronouncing unfamiliar and non-words semantic errors (ship reads as boat) = deep dyslexia

55 of 264

Encoding

experiencing an event; learning new information

56 of 264

Storage

consolidation - process of creating LTM trace

57 of 264

retrieval

free recall (without any cues or help); recognition; involuntary thoughts

58 of 264

Modal model

sequential process, you do not directly encode information into LTM, according to this model, it first must go through STM.

59 of 264

recency effect

these words are remembered because they are still in STM

60 of 264

Primacy effect

these words are remembered because there was an opportunity for rehearsal --> LTM

61 of 264

Working memory model

temporarily holding and manipulating information --> learning, reasoning, comprehending, problem solving. Not just a single unit, we have several components. STM not storage space

62 of 264

Declarative memory (LT)

episodic (memory for specific episodes and details) and semantic (memory for facts and meaning of things)

63 of 264

non-declarative

implicit memory (learning through prior exposure, but without consciously remembering) and procedural memory (memory for skills, including motor skills)

64 of 264

Amnesia

the profound loss of long-term memory in the presence of relatively preserved general cognitive abilities (IQ), inability to remember important events from distance past, mundane events from recent past, inability to recall what happen during the day

65 of 264

anterograde amnesia

inability to form new memories, learn new information

66 of 264

retrograde amnesia

inability to retrieve memories from the past (i.e. prior to brain injury)

67 of 264

Hippocampus

it is deeply in the middle temporal lobe

68 of 264

Outside of the hippocampus

will not sit in the brain in isolation, connected to other different structures.

69 of 264

profound anterograde amnesia

no memories since the date of his surgery

70 of 264

Patient HM

lost- profound anterograde amnesia. Retained some retrograde memory loss. retained to learn motor sills

71 of 264

STM vs LTM

patients with amnesia have largely retained STM abilities

72 of 264

KF

didn't have normal STM but had LTM. demonstrated that STM and LTM are separate systems

73 of 264

Procedural memory - retrograde aspect

premorbid skills are not forgotten

74 of 264

procedural memory - anterograde aspect

it is possible to learn new motor skills in amnesia but without remembering the learning episode itself

75 of 264

implicit learning

implicit learning is intact

76 of 264

intact repetition priming

exposed to something previously then shown something else, (moving closer and closer to what you have been shown) job is to say what you see

77 of 264

semantic memory - retrograde

quite well retained in amnesia. have ability to remember facts and information established prior to brain surgery

78 of 264

Semantic memory anterograde

the ability to form new semantic memories after the onset of amnesia is controversial

79 of 264

Vocabulary tests

what vocabulary has entered domain since injury. would they know what it is? e.g. HM and jacuzzi

80 of 264

famous people test

think of who became famous since the date of the injury and see if the patient knows them

81 of 264

training entirely new information

learning novel word (tell them a new word and check if they are able to track and domain it)

82 of 264

Episodic memory - retrograde

most amnesiacs suffer from some degree of retrograde episodic memory loss

83 of 264

Ribot's law

older (remote) memories are more durable than those acquired recently (recent memories most likely to be lost in amnesia)

84 of 264

Episodic memory anterograde

inability to form new episodic memories is the key deficit in amnesia

85 of 264

Episodic and semantic memory independent systems?

entirely possible to be born and grow up with a non-episodic memory system, due to an early brain injury but to still be making episodic memories and be learning in school as normal

86 of 264

Neuroanatomical theory - developmental amnesia

episodic memory depends on the hippocampus, whereas semantic memory depends on the underlying parahioppocampal cortices

87 of 264

Item memory

old/new items (decide between the items, regard as seen before or never seen before)

88 of 264

source memory

particular feature of the stimuli (e.g. what colour was the item you were shown)

89 of 264

Recollection - more impaired in amnesia

on the basis of retrieving specific contextual details, where and when, details of interaction

90 of 264

familiarity

on the basis of the perceived strength of the memory trace, but without specific contextual details (confident you have seen this face before but you have no idea when or where)

91 of 264

System consolidation theories

new memories are consolidated via the hippocampus, held there for a while before they become consolidated in the neocortex

92 of 264

multiple trace theory

different types of memories are encoded/consolidated in different locations of the brain. memories change over the lifespan as they are recalled and evaluated --> become stored in different/multiple locations

93 of 264

Reconsolidation theory

each time a memory is recalled and shared with other it becomes reconsolidated, many memory traces are available for the same event memory

94 of 264

Lateralisation/laterality

dominance or preferential use of one side of the body for a specific task

95 of 264

hemispheric asymmetries

looks superficially symmetrical not as symmetrical as it seems. RH is thought to be larger and heavier than left, the sylvian fissure extends further back on the left side and is less sloped than on the right

96 of 264

Functional lateralisation

does this case differences in functionality across the 2 hemispheres? LH - controls movement of the body and vice versa. corpus collosum - does change between hemispheres. Language strongly left lateralised. Emotional = RH

97 of 264

Why?

lack of redundancy/unnecessary duplication, greater flexibility, greater complexity of function

98 of 264

laterality in language processing

left hemisphere dominance for speech and various aspects of language BUT RH dominance for language processing at discourse level; (intent, metaphorical expressions, emotional tone)

99 of 264

laterality in visuospatial ability

RH advantage for visuospatial functions, mental rotation, spatial transformation, right posterior parietal activation: supports spatial transformation necessary for mental rotation. RH recognises facial expressions more quickly

100 of 264

Laterality in attention

LH - focal attention; attention to local specific cues. RH = Global attention; holistic processing

101 of 264

Handedness

handedness exerts influence in how language is organised in the brain. 94% of right handers have LH speech, 70% of left handers have LH speech. left handers less lateralised

102 of 264

Gender

sex exerts some influence on the degree and type of functional lateralisation

103 of 264

gender - spatial ability

7% right handed men and 56% right handed women have RH dominance for spatial ability, women better at recalling object locations/landmarks

104 of 264

gender - language

no convincing evidence for differences in lateralisation

105 of 264

Contemporary views: what is lateralised?

LH preference to interact more exclusively with itself, RH interact in a more intergrative fashion

106 of 264

Callosal agenesis

rage congenital disorder; visual impairments, poor muscle tone, poor motor condition, some cognitive and social difficulties

107 of 264

Commissurotomy

treatment of intractable epilepsy in the 50's and 60's, corpus callosum is severed --> split brain patients

108 of 264

split brain syndrome

initial confusion and difficulty following complex commands, mutism, good recovery after a few months, normal post surgery intelligence, personality and behaviour

109 of 264

Gazzaniga's hypothesis

LH and RH differ in their approach to information processing LH: interpreter, gives rise to conscious experience RH: accurate record keeper. Processes in an unconscious manner

110 of 264

Corballi's hypothesis

RH: interpreter for visuospatial processing = RH is inherently more holistic

111 of 264

Hallmark 1 - response x visual field interaction

when a stimulus is presented to the right visual field, the patient responds essentially in a normal manner. However when a stimulus is presented to the left visual field, the patient verbally indicates that they saw nothing, yet saw their left hand

112 of 264

Hallmark 2 - hemispheric specialisation

split brain patients show pronounced hemispheric specialisation. LH: superior in language, production, verbal labelling, RH: superior in visual-spatial tasks, causal inference

113 of 264

Hallmark 3 - post hoc confabulation

observed post hoc confabulation to explain one's own behaviour

114 of 264

hallmark 4 - split attention

often argued that attention and consciousness are closely related. Suggests that attention is split in split-brain patients. Object-based and space-based attention are situated in different hemispheres, implying independent attentional centres

115 of 264

hallmark 5 - inability to compare stimuli across the midline

split brain patients seem incapable of comparing stimuli across the midline, irrespective of the type of stimuli

116 of 264

Problem solving

purposeful, goal-directed. Controlled rather than automatic, effortful. Immediate solution is not available. Plan and strategy is required

117 of 264

Well-defined problems

all aspects of the problem solving process are clearly specified

118 of 264

ill-defined problems

underspecified problems

119 of 264

knowledge-rich problems

requires expertise

120 of 264

knowledge-lean problems

does not require expertise

121 of 264

The gestalt approach

reproductive thinking and productive thinking

122 of 264

reproductive thinking

reuse of previous experiences --> solution

123 of 264

productive thinking

novel restructuring of the problem --> solution

124 of 264

insight problem solving assumptions

a mistaken assumption needs to be removed for successful solution, the solution comes suddenly; aha experience

125 of 264

subjective feelings - metacognition

confidence is gradual for non-insight problems, but sudden for insight problems

126 of 264

gobal attention; holistic processing

RH is more associated with insight, distant associations occur in RH

127 of 264

Incubation

a period of rest in the process of effortful problem solving. Longer breaks associated with higher probabilities of solution. Memory for misleading cues decreased with incubation time --> fixation forgetting

128 of 264

Problem representation/understanding

incorrect problem representation --> forms of rigidity (get stuck in one way of solving a problem called the mental set)

129 of 264

Mental set

a tendency to rely on habits and procedures that were used before (related past experiences we engage in and use before)

130 of 264

functional fixedness

our tendency to view objects in a narrow sense - typical function

131 of 264

Overcoming functional fixedness?

focus on infrequently noticed or new feature, form a solution based on that obscure feature = more focus on parts of objects and how they could be used --> improved insight-based problem solving

132 of 264

cultural handicap

not specific to technologically developed cultures

133 of 264

Representational change theory - Ohlsson

suggests that when we try to solve a problem, we keep trying it, if we experience repeated failure we come to a block. To unblock the situation, we need to engage in some kind of representational change e.g. come to the problem differently

134 of 264

Constraint relaxation

harder to relax the constraint for type b problems, more unusual to change the operator than the value. Lateral prefrontal cortex is involved in processing constraints, patients with LPC damage perform better than controls in type B problems

135 of 264

The GPS model (general problem solver) - Newell and Simon, 1972

step by step progression from an initial to a goal state. breaking down to sub goals.

136 of 264

Problem space

mental representations of the problem itself and each stage of the problem-solving process, its operators and constraints

137 of 264

Algorithms

a set of rules that can be applied systematically to solve certain types of problems e.g. maths formula. Always leads to solution but not always the most efficient, not prevalent in everyday problems

138 of 264

Heuristics

general strategies or rules of thumb that can be applied to a range of problems. "shortcuts" in the problem space

139 of 264

two modes - Kahneman and Tversky

system 1 and system 2

140 of 264

system 1

unconscious (heuristic), automatic, rapid, nonverbal, capacity-free, shared with animals, evolutionarily old

141 of 264

system 2

conscious, controlled, slow, linked to language, capacity-limited, animals don't have, evolutionarily new

142 of 264

Means-end analysis

systematically devising means to reach the subtotals ends/tower of hanoi

143 of 264

hill climbing heuristics

consistently choosing the path that seems to lead most directly to your goal but sometimes the indirect route has greater long-term benefits, need to move backwards in order to move forwards

144 of 264

Planning - problem representation

left dorso-lateral prefrontal cortex

145 of 264

planning - plan production

right dorso-lateral prefrontal cortex

146 of 264

planning - plan execution

posterior temporal, inferior-frontal, dorso-lateral premotor cortex

147 of 264

Executive function

describes a set of cognitive abilities that control and regulate other abilities and behaviours. necessary for goal-directed behaviour. Ability to initiate and stop actions, monitor and change behaviour as needed, plan future behaviour when faced

148 of 264

Executive function (2)

with novel tasks and situations. Executive function allows us to anticipate outcomes, adapt to changing situations, and inhibit appropriate behaviour

149 of 264

the homunculus problem

litte man in our mind containing our activities. Problematic = if there is a man conducting us? who is conducting the little man?

150 of 264

Luria: the classical view:

the first neuropsychologist to suggest that the frontal lobes are crucial in regulating human behaviour. Forming plans and acting on these plans.Comparing the result of an action with the original intention

151 of 264

Norman and Shallice (supervisory attentional system)

the frontal lobes program, regulate and verify behaviour and thought

152 of 264

1. contention scheduling

controls routine actions, action schemata are activated above a certain threshold (automatic)

153 of 264

2. SAS

controls non-routine actions - conscious attentional control

154 of 264

How to test executive function?

N-back task, digit backwards task, go/no-go task

155 of 264

Rule shifting/cognitive flexibility: Wisconsin card sorting task

previously correct rule must be inhibited, flexibility is necessary to change the rule. Sort cards following criterion, feedback after each trial. Classification changes without warning

156 of 264

Planning (action sequences)

tower of london task, similar to tower of hanoi. Move away from the goal temporarily. Testing planning for action sequences

157 of 264

Verbal fluency

produce as many words as you can from a given category

158 of 264

Semantic fluency

words that blind in the category animals

159 of 264

Phonemic fluency

words beginning with the letter G. shifts between categories. They struggle with shifts and get stuck on one category

160 of 264

symptoms of frontal lobe lesions

1. motor (voluntary motor behaviour) 2. sensory/perceptual 3. cognitive; planning/initiating/strategy formation/reasoning/decision making, attention, memory (encoding and retrieval), WM, Language use (pragmatics)

161 of 264

Pseudopsychopathy (bilateral or right frontal damage)

immature behaviour, lack of tact and restraint, impolite language

162 of 264

Pseudodepression (left frontal damage)

apathy and indifference, loss of initiative, little or no verbal output reduced overt emotion

163 of 264

SAS and frontal injury

the SAS is impaired --> contention scheduling is unmodulated. Unable to inhibit irrelevant input --> schema is irrelevant to goals

164 of 264

Utilisation behaviour

tendance to pick up and use objects in close proximity (triggered by stimuli in environment)

165 of 264

Multiple errands test - Shallice and Burgess (8 simple tasks)

buy a lettuce, be somewhere in 15 mins, record information e.g. price of tomatoes. Rules; spend as little as possible, take as little time as possible, only enter shop when wanting to buy something.

166 of 264

Part2

--> inefficient actions, --> rule breaks. Problem with activating intentions when a relevant situation occurs. Not a problem of intention or memory, but a problem with processes that help realise intentions and goals

167 of 264

Rehabilitation: goal management training

• Interactive program designed to improve the organisation of goals and ability to achieve them for people experienced executive function impairement.

168 of 264

Theory of mind

our ability to infer the intentions and mental states of others --> behaviour. There is some evidence that the frontal cortex is involved in this ability. Right frontal injury might result in impaired ToM whilst reasoning is unaffected.

169 of 264

frontal lobe patients

generally poorer at understanding other people's point of view and detecting deception

170 of 264

Confabulation

Memory error defined as the production of fabricated, distorted or misinterpreted memories about oneself or the world, without the conscious intention to deceive.

171 of 264

Emotion and cognition

traditionally cognitive psychology did not consider emotion

172 of 264

Cognition

attention, memory, decision making

173 of 264

emotion

appraisal theories, emotion regulation, cognitive biases

174 of 264

affect

broad concept to cover a wide range of experiences including emotions, moods and feelings

175 of 264

emotion

brief but intense experiences

176 of 264

mood

prolonged states of emotion

177 of 264

what gives rise to emotion?

1. peripheral theories (bottom-up) 2. cognitive appraisal theories (top-down)

178 of 264

peripheral theories (bottom-up)

physiological changes in the body -> emotion -> appraisal/evaluation of the situation

179 of 264

cognitive appraisal theories (top-down)

appraisal/evaluation of the situation -> emotion -> physiological changes in the body

180 of 264

James lang theory of emotion

physiological arousal instigates the experience of emotion, we experience fear because we are running away

181 of 264

james lang

stimulus (visual or auditory cortex) --> bodily changes ANS and skeletal --> interpretation of changes by the context; this is the emotion

182 of 264

Cannon-bard theory

stimulus (visual or auditory cortex) -thalamus to cortex-thalamus to hypothalamus-> conscious experience of emotion, physiological changes

183 of 264

Schacter-Singer theory of emotion - physiology and emotional experience are not independent

stimulus --> awareness of physiological arousal and physiological changes - interpretation of arousal as an emotion - physiological changes -thalamus to cortex-> (awareness)

184 of 264

Damasio's somatic marker hypothesis

gut instinct -> orinate towards most advantageous solutions -> appropriate goal-directed behaviour <--> patients with amygdala/VMPFC/OFC lesion

185 of 264

LeDoux: two emotional pathways

1. fast acting thalamus-amygdala circuit - allows rapid responses to threatening situations, bypasses the cortex. 2. slow-acting thalamus-cortex-amygdala circuit - allows detailed analysis of the emotional sig. of the situation

186 of 264

are emotions cognitive?

YES or NO

187 of 264

No

affective primary hypothesis

188 of 264

1. affective judgments are made without conscious information processing

mere exposure effect: stimuli that is presented previously (below the level of conscious awareness) has an effect on preference/behaviour even though stimuli is not consciously available

189 of 264

2. affective qualities of stimuli are processed faster than other qualities

liking ratings were only affected if primes were presented for 4ms and not 1s, femininity ratings were only affected if primes were presented for 1s and not 4ms

190 of 264

???

affective responses can occur as very rapid responses without conscious awareness of any cognitive processing, we are talking about very low-level emotional responses here (preferences, fear) and not emotions such as shame or jealousy

191 of 264

YES

Cognitive appraisal matters

192 of 264

1. primary appraisals

appraisal of the situation e.g. positive, negative, stressful, or irrelevant to wellbeing

193 of 264

2. secondary appraisals

appraisal of the resources available to cope with the situation

194 of 264

3. reappraisal

the situation and coping strategies are monitored, and appraisals modified if necessary

195 of 264

Smith and Lazarus

the pattern of 6 appraisal components elicit specific emotions = appraisal profiles

196 of 264

Primary

1. motivational relevance (is the situation related to personal commitments?) 2. motivational congruence (is the situation consistent with my individual goals?)

197 of 264

Secondary

1. accountability (who deserved the credit or blame?), 2. problem-focused coping potential (can i resolve the situation), 3. emotion-focused coping potential (can i handle the situation psychologically) 4. future expectancy (will it change?)

198 of 264

individual differences

e.g. locus of control, appraisals are important but the appraisal determinants of emotions may be more flexible --> the same emotion can result from several different appraisal combinations

199 of 264

Causality

do appraisals cause emotional states most recent research findings are correlational

200 of 264

Emotion regulation

emotion generation (spontaneous appraisal) -> emotion regulation (reappraisal) the management and control of emotional states. deliberate and effortful process seeks to override spontaneous emotional responses

201 of 264

emotion regulation strategies

reappraisal, distancing, repeated emotional events -> implicit processes

202 of 264

appraisal

appraisal is useful in stressful situation when they are uncontrollable, but they are useless in controllable stress

203 of 264

mood congruity

learning and memory of emotional material is best if the material has the same affective value as the learners mood state

204 of 264

mood-state-dependant memory retrieval

memory retrieval is better if mood states at retrieval match the mood state at learning

205 of 264

thought congruity

our free associations, judgements and thoughts are often congruent with our mood

206 of 264

Becks negative triad

negative views about the world --> negative views about oneself --> negative views about the future

207 of 264

attentional bias

selective attention to threat-related stimuli/negative stimuli

208 of 264

attentional engagement

automatic

209 of 264

attentional disengagement

controlled

210 of 264

Emotional stroop task

What colour is the word written in, focus on the colour not the word. Most people respond faster and more accurately to the congruent trials (when word matches the colour).

211 of 264

Dot probe task

shorter response latencies for anxiety provoking words in anxious patients and individuals with trait anxiety. trait anxious individuals only show attentional bias when they are close to a stressful event

212 of 264

interpretive bias

tendency to interpret ambitious stimuli and situations in a threatening fashion/or negatively

213 of 264

explicit memory bias

tendency to retrieve mostly negative and unpleasant memories rather than neutral and positive ones

214 of 264

Learning strategies - mnemonics

using mental imagery, narrative technique, concept maps/mind maps

215 of 264

the process

encoding -> storage -> retrieval (encoding -> retrieval -> encoding ect.)

216 of 264

spaced repetition

likely to lead to a more varied representation --> more searchable/multiple retrieval cues (the longer the spacing the longer you remember)

217 of 264

Principles

if you fail to remember a word, it should be presented again after a short delay, if you are correct it should presented (tested) after a longer delay

218 of 264

expanding retrieval

distributed practise + generation effect together (spaced practise leads to less forgetting)

219 of 264

distribution practise is more efficient in terms of learning and retention

BUT efficiency and convenience are not the same

220 of 264

maintenance rehearsal

internal repetition (maintenance rehearsal) chances long-term recognition but not recall

221 of 264

elaborative rehearsal

some form of elaboration material is necessary in order to enhance recall

222 of 264

Levels of processing (LOP)

emphasis on processing; the type of processing determines whether information is remembered long-term. Deep (e.g. semantic encoding) is more efficient than superficial (e.g. phonological) encoding. Deep encoding establishes multiple retrieval routes

223 of 264

self-reference effect

the self serves as a basis for elaboration and organisation = we remember information better if we can relate to it

224 of 264

organisation as elaboration

word lists are better remembered if they are organised by semantic categories

225 of 264

retrieval

retrieval cues are crucial to remembering the encoding specificity principle. retrieval of info is best if cues that were present at encoding are also present at retrieval

226 of 264

spatio-temporal context

when, where?

227 of 264

other contextual aspects

physical state, mood, cognitive context (context can be deliberately reinstated to retrieve a memory or can influence memory incidentally)

228 of 264

memory is context dependant

environmental context - returning to the original environment helps reinstate the memory that you struggle to access

229 of 264

memory is state-dependant

internal environment - reinstating the internal environment (drugs, alcohol) helps retrieve memories that were encoded in the same state. mood states as context

230 of 264

testing beneficial?

repeated retrieval practise leads to effective, more varied cues. Retrieval failures encourage learners to seek effective, alternative cues. Testing produces desirable difficulties and prevents overconfidence

231 of 264

metacognition

your knowledge, understanding and control of your own cognitive processes a higher order cognitive function. influences how you select and make use of memory strategies

232 of 264

Nelson and Narens

2 key components of metacognition - object level (actual task you are performing) flow of info, monitor getting along with task, leads to meta level, thinking about where you at.

233 of 264

measure meta memory

global judgements of learning (JOLs) and individuals JOLs

234 of 264

global jol

how many do you think you will be able to recall in 1 hour

235 of 264

individual jol

do you think you will recall mountain/unicorn/comprehension

236 of 264

foresight bias

people tend to be overconfident in global JOLs but more accurate with individual JOLS

237 of 264

how to measure meta memory

if the task is easy and time is not limited more time is allocated on difficult items. more time is unnecessarily spent on items already known, not enough on difficult material

238 of 264

under time pressure

most time is spent on easy material, expertise means you will spend more time on challenging material

239 of 264

the feeling of knowing phenomenon (FOK)

the subjective feeling of knowing the answer but without being able to recall it

240 of 264

the tip of the tongue phenomenon (TOT)

a subjectively more extreme version of the above

241 of 264

typical research paradigm

ask ppt to recall the info, if indicate TOT as if they would be able to recall if additional cue is given (letter cue), check how accurate they were in their prediction of TOT

242 of 264

chronological age

number of years since birth

243 of 264

biological age

a change in health status

244 of 264

social age

the social role an individual takes on or is focused into. 'normative events' e.g. parenting, grand-parenting, death of spouse

245 of 264

psychological age

the functional sensory and intellectual capacities

246 of 264

healthy cognitive ageing

decline in cog functioning is normal part of ageing. Aspects of memory and executive function appear to be most clearly affected

247 of 264

cohort effect

people born at different time periods different cognitively as a result of historic changes in diet, education and other social factors

248 of 264

The flynn effect

IQ test scores worldwide have been increasing over time; younger generations perform better than older generations. This does not mean that cognitive changes in old age don’t exist or that they are not measurable,

249 of 264

recall

recall is impaired in OA, typically more difficult than recognition. Recall can be made easier by using cues

250 of 264

recognition

recognition is not or less impaired. Can be difficult with dividing attention.

251 of 264

recollection vs familiarity

OA typically respond with fewer R responses, OA overly reliant on familiarity when making recognition decisions

252 of 264

Source memory

the ability to retrieve the context or the source of information that was previously presented. OA sig poorer at correctly reporting who presented a certain piece of information to them

253 of 264

false fame effect

OA tend to attribute fame to non-famous but highly familiar stimulus due to presentation in an experimental setting

254 of 264

semantic memory

preserved, vocal well preserved, autobiographical facts preserved

255 of 264

STM

STM storage not typically impaired e.g. digit forward task is normal but digit backward span task is impaired (difficulties with holding and manipulating information at the same time)

256 of 264

metamemory

OA tend to be overconfident about their memory in experimental memory tasks but no completely inaccurate in their perditions as to what they will and will not be able to remember (item-based JOLs and FOKs)

257 of 264

inhibition theory

OA have difficulty inhibiting irrelevant information when retrieving from memory

258 of 264

Dementia

condition with a gradual yet relentless loss of cognitive function due to a progressive degeneration of neurons

259 of 264

Alzheimer's warning signs

memory loss affects job skills, difficulty performing familiar tasks, problems with language, disorientation to time and place, poor or decreased judgement, problems with abstract thinking, misplacing things, changes in mood/behaviour/personality

260 of 264

Diagnosis

memory impairment with at least two other deficits including problems of language, action control, perception, executive function

261 of 264

memory deficits in AD

substantial episodic memory deficit, semantic declines as disease progresses, sig working memory deficits

262 of 264

autobiographical memory

different kinds of stored knowledge pertaining to the self, including personal episodes and facts, older memories are generally better preserved than recent memories in AD

263 of 264

4 categories of identity

attributes, social identities, evaluative descriptions, physical descriptions. AD generate fewer responses on test, higher percentage of evaluative responses rather than social identities

264 of 264

Get Revising

Cognitive Psychology

Other cards in this set

Card 2

Front

Back

Card 3

Front

Back

Card 4

Front

Back

Card 5

Front

Back

Comments

Similar Psychology resources:

Other cards in this set

Card 2

Front

Back

Card 3

Front

Back

Card 4

Front

Back

Card 5

Front

Back

Comments

Related discussions on The Student Room

Similar Psychology resources: