Cognitive Processing.

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Bottom-up processing
Directly affected by environmental stimulus.
-stimulus, perceptually, and data-driven.
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Top-down processing
The process that is directly affected by factors such as individuals experience or expectations.
-conceptually, memory and expectation drove.
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Serial processing
One process is completed at one time before the next. It is the traditional view of cog processing but it is very oversimplified.
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Parallel processing
More than one process occurs at one time. Nearly all processing is done this way, especially when we are highly skilled or practiced in that area.
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The brain versus the mind (Hardware vs Software)
Input=processing=output
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How do we process information
Stimulus
Attention
Perception
Thought
Decision
Response/Action
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Quantitive data
Value of data in the form of counts or numbers.
Experiments, Neuroscience, and Computer stimulations/ Modelling.
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Qualitative data
Data that can be arranged into categories based on physical traits, gender, colors, or anything that does not have a number associated with it.
Self-reports, Case studies, and Naturalistic observations.
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Prosopagnosia
Known as face blindness and is a neurological disorder. People with this are unable to recognize faces but other visuals are unaffected. Perceiving familiar faces but not recognizing them. BU is functional and TD is impaired.
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Multi-store model- Atkinson and Shiffrin 1968
sensory store(attention)= short term memory(rehearsal)=long term memory.
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The sensory store
First store. Only what we pay attention to is transferred into STM. Duration is limited to about 2 seconds before information decays.
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Short term store
Duration of around 12.30 seconds without it being rehearsed. It is a very fragile store and distractions cause forgetting. Either just perceived info from Sensory or retrieved from LTM. Info is transferred to LTM or decays.
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Millers Magic numbers
We have the capacity to remember around 7 chunks of info. (7+/-2)
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Long term store
Info can remain here for up to a lifetime. The capacity is unlimited and info is stored semantically (meaning). Forgetting may be due to interference of context.
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Tulving 1967-Types of LTM
Procedural memory(implicit). Declarative(explicit)=Episodic and Semantic.
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Episodic memory
Specific memories of events, experiences. Encode using context and stored along with details of when and where. Can be cued with context.
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Semantic memory
Relationships, meanings, and how things go together in the world. It is robust and resistant to change/ alterations (in dementia STM goes first, semantic much later). Language is stored and organised by semantic meaning.
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Procedural memory
Motor memories about how we do things. It is extremely robust and resistant to change. This links to automatic processing.
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Clive Wearing- Clinical case
Damage to the hippocampus caused by a virus that led to amnesia. This meant he was unable to form new memories. Found that the hippocampus plays an important role in memory. Impaired short-term memory but Semantic and Episodic memories are intact.
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Working memory model- Baddeley and Hitch 1974
Said MSM was too simple and only a single system. Emphasised short term memory processes and modelled how stored info is manipulated for use in more complex cognitive tasks.
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Central Executive
The control centre of the system and allocates info to the subsystems. The phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad. Details with complex cog tasks such as mental arithmetic and problem-solving.
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Visuo-spatial sketchpad (inner eye)
Stores and processes info in a visual form.
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Phonological loop
Deals with spoken word and written material. Phonological store (inner ear) holds speech-based info. Articulatory loop (inner voice) used to rehearse and store verbal info from the phono store.
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Levels of processing- Craik and Lockhart 1972
The way in which we encode info during learning affects how well you remember. Attentional and perceptual processes at learning affect LTM. The deeper the processing the more elaborate and long-lasting stronger memory trace.
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Shallow condition
Decide if a word was in upper or lower case.
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Intermediate condition
Decide if a word rhymes with a target.
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Deep condition
Decide if a word makes sense in a given sentence.
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Active attention
controlled in a TD way by the individual's goal or expectation.
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Passive attention
Controlled in a BU way by external factors/ stimuli.
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Focussed attention
Selective attention to just one thing despite other stimuli available.
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Divided attention
Multi-tasking- attending and responding to multiple things.
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Focussed Auditory attention- Cherry 1953, The cocktail Party Problem
How we follow just one conversation when several are occurring. He used a dichotic listening task to test this and found participants did not notice changes in the second message but did notice physical changes in the second. Shadowing is when saying back
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Focussed visual task-visual search task
An active scan of the visual environment for a particular target among other distractors. Use of a search template using key features of the target. There is no need to process distractors that do not fit in with template.
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Divided Attention- Duel task performance
Levels of multitasking skills have mixed effects on cognition.
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Automatic processing
These are fast and do not reduce the capacity for performing other tasks. They are unconscious and unavoidable when the appropriate stimuli are experienced.
Stroop test is used to measure this.
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Inattentional blindness
Failure to notice a fully visible but unexpected object because attention was engaged on another task or object. People are blind to things that are irrelevant to the task.
Invisible Gorilla.
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Change blindness
A perceptual phenomenon that occurs when a change in the visual stimulus is introduced and the observer does not notice it. It is attributed to problems with attention ad distraction. We are also to blind to changes in smell and sound.
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Music and reading
Music with repeated lyrics is reported to be the most distracting even when they are unfamiliar or even in another language. Extraverts are less distracted than introverts due to the higher cortical arousal threshold.
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Phonological interference hypothesis
Processing auditory information especially words require activation of the phono loop and reading also engages the same loop. This maxes ou the capacity and results in impaired reading.
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Phonology
Study of phonemes. Combine these to make syllables and words. They are the smallest unit of sound and alone they are meaningless. In English usually are 44 basic phonemes.
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Morphology
Study of morphemes. The smallest meaningful unit of sound made up of phonemes. In English, they convey grammatical info such as tense and number.
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Semantics
How meaning is conveyed in a sentence.
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Pragmatics
How the speaker adjusts language for different contexts.
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Syntax
How we combine words and order. there are strict rules for this. English is very heavy SVO language.
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Language development
Language begins before birth in the womb. A baby picks up on the sounds and familiarity of a voice. day-old infants prefer the sound and presence of the mother. Auditory learning occurs before birth.
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Importance of reading
Poor reading is associated with poo income, low achievement, high unemployment rates, poor living conditions, higher depression rates, less socially active. School exclusion- 70% of students permanently excluded have literacy difficulties.
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Simple view of reading- Gough and Turner 1986
Decoding{ Reading }Comprehension
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Skinner-Behaviouralist
We are born as blank slates- Tebula Rasa. Everything is learnt through reinforcement modelling and imitation. Language is the product of a copy reward repeat mechanism. Language rich home leads to a language-rich child.
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Chomsky- Linguist
We are born with innate biological drives to acquire language. Have an evolutionary need to communicate with people who keep us safe and will learn the language despite the quality of linguist home. There is a biological critical period for language acqui
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English is a hard language
It is irregular, not transparent and graphemes do not map consistency onto the phonemes.
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Importance of language
Early language skills are crucial to later reading ability as it is based on phonemes. Preschools language skills(vocab) are linked to reading. Comprehension is important and poor language development is linked to reading difficulties.
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Dyslexia
Specific learning difficulty that primarily affects word recognition, decoding, and spelling. Affects 10% of the British population. It is a phonological deficit.
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Poor comprehenders
Specific learning difficulties that primarily affects word understanding. Decoding(pronunciation) is relatively unaffected. Non- phonological deficit.
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Garden variety poor readers
General deficits in reading often have more generalised academic difficulties.
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Who is at risk of reading disorders
Children with poo preschool language skills, children with impoverished home literacy environments, a parent with a disorder, boys, English as a second language, and if that language is non-alphabetical.
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Articulate Mammal Aichison.
Set out 10 key features that capture the essential nature of human language which is separate from animals.
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Visual word recognition lexical decison
Usually timed and is made up of words and non-words. Uses literacy and reading skills. List one illegal words- non-words and list two is pseudohomophones- non-words pronounced as real ones.
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Word association
Homophones- words have one spelling but multiple meanings or pronunciation
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Context is a factor
What is likely right now? Can be primed using semantic priming? Sentence context?
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Spelling to sound regularity
Irregular words v regular and consistency.
Grapheme to phoneme correspondence.
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Other cards in this set

Card 2

Front

The process that is directly affected by factors such as individuals experience or expectations.
-conceptually, memory and expectation drove.

Back

Top-down processing

Card 3

Front

One process is completed at one time before the next. It is the traditional view of cog processing but it is very oversimplified.

Back

Preview of the back of card 3

Card 4

Front

More than one process occurs at one time. Nearly all processing is done this way, especially when we are highly skilled or practiced in that area.

Back

Preview of the back of card 4

Card 5

Front

Input=processing=output

Back

Preview of the back of card 5
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