Chemistry Elements from the sea

(concentration of solution in mol dm-3) x (volume of solution in dm3)

amount in mole

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Elements spectra are complex - electron shells more complex. The shells themselves are split up into sub-shells, labelled s,p,d and f.

subshells

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Max no. of electrons - 2

subshell s

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Max no. of electrons - 6

subshell p

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Max no. of electrons - 10

subshell d

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Max no. of electrons - 14

subshell f

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Each orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons, electrons in atoms have a ... Each spins at the same rate in either anti/clockwise direction.

spin

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Electrons can only occupy the same orbital if they have opposite or

paired spin

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When a sub-shell is fully occupied the arrangement is called ... a particularly stable arrangement (Ar and Kr are only temporarily full).

closed shell

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s,p,d and f sub-shells are divided further into ... - an electron in a given .... can be found in a particular region of space around the nucleus.

atomic orbital

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1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p4 and or more appropriately except ... and ... where it is 4s1.

cucr

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the condition of being dissociated into ions (as by heat or radiation or chemical reaction or electrical discharge). an input of energy is always needed to remove electrons because they are attracted to the nucleus.

ionisation

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can be represented by this - X(g) → X+ (g) + e_ As energy increases the levels become more closely spaced, until they converge. After this point,which corresponds to the electron escaping from the atom, the electron is free to move around with any e

ionisation energy

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When one electron is pulled out of an atom, the energy required is called this. We define this of an element as the energy needed to remove one electron from every atom in one mole of isolated gaseous atoms of the element.

First ionisation enthalpy

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The filled shells between the outer shell and nucleus shield the positively charged nucleus from the outermost electron - reducing its attraction. Easier to remove.

sheild

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More than on can be taken (excluding hydrogen) so there are .... referring to the energies required to take a further electron. Enthalpies increase as successive electrons are removed as remaining electrons will be more attracted to the nucleus

Successive ionisation enthalpies

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X+(g) → X2+(g) + e_

second ionisation enthalpy

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X2+(g) → X3+(g) + e_

third ionisation enthalpy

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X3+(g) → X4+(g) + e_

fourth ionisation enthalpy

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Removing an electron from any element in solid state is very difficult. So, while removing an electron the solid state is converted to the gaseous state and hence, its easy to remove an electron from gaseous state due to weak intermolecular or inter

Isolated gaseous atom

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Metal atoms cannot achieve the stable electron arrangement of noble gas. Insead outer shell electrons are shared by all the atoms in a sea/pool of delocalised electrons - conduct electricity because of this. (Regular array of positive ions included a

Metallic bonding

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When metals react with non-metals in a chemical reaction the metal atom transfers electron(s) to the non-metal atom so that all atoms end up with a full outer shell. Results in the formation of charged ions. (Has to be energetically favourable).

ionic bonding

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Many compounds containing only non-metallic elements. (not energetically favourable to form ions). Electrons are shared between the atoms in the compound as a result it is more stable. The two are held together because of the positively charged nucle

covalent bonding

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Both bonds in a dative covalent bond come from the same atom.

dative covalent bond

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A large uniformed group of Ions that are fixed together through Electrostatic Attraction.

ionic lattice

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Low melting and boiling points - This is because the weak intermolecular forces break down easily. Non-conductive - Substances with a simple molecular structure do not conduct electricity. This is because they do not have any free electrons or an ov

simple molecular

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sea/pool of delocalised electrons regular array of positive ions included as well.

metallic lattice

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substances like diamond, graphite and silicon dioxide (silicon(IV) oxide).

giant covalent

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Electron pairs that form bonds are called

bonding pairs

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Electrons not involved in bonding are called

lone pairs

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In general, different atoms attract bonding electrons unequally. One atom gets a slight negative charge because it has a greater share of the bonding electrons. The other atom becomes slightly positively charged because it’s lost some of its share o

polar bond

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A positively charged ion, i.e., one that would be attracted to the cathode in electrolysis

cation

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A negatively charged ion, i.e., one that would be attracted to the anode in electrolysis

anion

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(Web definition the tendency of an atom or radical to attract electrons in the formation of an ionic bond). Each atoms attraction for bonding electrons - it’s ‘electron pulling power’.

electronegativity

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When outer shell electrons are shared by all the atoms in a compound.

delocalised

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An atom that has either lost or gained an electron(s). Gained = negative charged, Lost = Positive charge.

charged ion

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When there is water of crystallisation, the water is fitted in the lattice as the same regular way as ions not just mixed.

hydrated crystal

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Sometimes , ionic crystals contain some water molecules and they sit within the ionic lattice. Water molecules forming an essential part of the crystal structure of some compounds.

Water of crystallisation

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(Of a substance, esp. a crystalline compound) containing no water.

Anhydrous

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The process of combining with water; usually reversible, adding water.

hydration

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A solid. Ions in solution behave independently, if two react to form a solid a precipitation reaction is said to have occurred.

Precipitate

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Are not involved in the reaction. NO3-(aq) and Na+(aq).

Spectator ion

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has a positive and negative end because of electronegativity. Chemical bonding is the result of either an atom sharing one or more outer orbit electrons with another atom or an atom taking outer orbit electrons from the atom with which it is bonding

polar molecule

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In any liquid/solid there are bonds between molecules -

intermolecular bonds

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When a molecule has a dipole we say it is

polarised

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occurs when a molecule (or part) has a positive end and a negative end.

dipole

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Occur when a molecule has two atoms bonded together which have substantially different electronegativities, so that one atom attracts the shared electron more than the other.

permenant dipole

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If a molecule does not have a permanent dipole, the electron density in the molecule may be evenly distributed at any one time - it has an

instantaneous dipole

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If other molecules are close to a molecule with a dipole these may cause an effect and produce an induced dipole.

induced dipole

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These are the weakest type of intermolecular bond, they can happen in all types of molecule - even those with a permanent dipole. Consider Krypton atoms. Their electrons are continually moving, creating instantaneous dipoles. When other Krypton atoms

Instantaneous dipole-induced dipole

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When a oxidation reaction and reduction reaction occur simultaneously.

redox

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Gains electrons so it is - and overall its charge will go down.

reduction

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Loses electrons so it is + and overall its change will go up.

oxidation

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gives electrons to something else.

Reducing agent

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removes electrons from something else.

Oxidising agent

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The number of how oxidised or reduced a atom/molecule is. Atoms in elements are in oxidation state 0 In simple ions the oxidation state is the same as the charge on the ion.

Oxidation state

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Negative ions containing oxygen.

oxyanion

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Oxidation is loss (of electrons) Reduction is gain (of electrons).

oilrig

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All halogen elements occur as diatomic molecules so ie F2 they are linked together by a single covalent bond.

diatomic molecule

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A halide is a binary compound, of which one part is a halogen atom and the other part is an element or radical that is less electronegative than the halogen, to make a fluoride, chloride, bromide, iodide, or astatine compound. Many salts are halides

halide ion

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In group 7, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine

halogens

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Chemical decomposition produced by passing an electric current through a liquid or solution containing ions.

Electrolysis

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When a oxidation reaction and reduction reaction occur simultaneously.

Halogenoalkanes

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Forms radicals, when radiation of the right wavelength hits a haloalkane. The term homolysis generally means breakdown (lysis) to equal pieces (homo = same), the dissociation of a molecule into two neutral fragments..

homolytic fisson

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A group of atoms behaving as a unit in a number of compounds.

radicals

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In chemistry, ... involves cleavage of a chemical bond in a process where both of the electrons involved in the original bond remain with only one of the fragment species.

heterolytic fission

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Is a molecule or negatively charged ion with a lone pair of electrons that it can donate to a positively charged atom to form a covalent bond.

nucelophile

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Heat under reflux. Break down (a compound) by chemical reaction with water.

hydrolysed

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Takes place between a haloalkane and hydroxide ions, in which the haloalkane is hydrolysed. Substitution reaction is also known as single displacement reaction and single replacement reaction. In a ..., a functional group in a part

substitution reaction

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Used to show the movement of electrons during the reaction.

curly arrow

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In organic and inorganic chemistry, nucleophilic substitution is a fundamental class of reactions in which an electron nucleophile selectively bonds with or attacks the positive or partially positive charge of an atom or a group of atoms to replace a

Nucleophilic substitution

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When you add water to break bonds.

hydrolysis

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When produced this way they are placed in a reaction vessel and allowed to react. Once over the products are removed and the vessel is cleaned and made ready for the next batch. Cost effective in small amounts, different products made with the same v

batch

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Continuous

continous

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The materials that feedstocks are prepared from, they are usually obtained from the ground or from the atmosphere.

raw materials

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Produced simultaneously (same time) as the desired product via the same reaction.

coproduct

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These are a result of unwanted side reactions.

byproduct

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% = Relative formula mass of useful product / Relative formula mass of reactants used x 100.

atom economy

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% = Actual mass of product / theoretical mass of product x 100.

percentage yeild

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Depend on the amount of product manufactured.

variable cost

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Chemistry Elements from the sea

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