AS Level Chemistry Terminology

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Accuracy
how close to the true value a measurement is
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Acid
a chemical that is a proton (H+) donor and releases H+ (aq) in solution
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Activation Energy
the minimum energy required to start a reaction by breaking bonds in the reactants
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Aim
identifies the purpose of an investigation
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Alcohol
a group of organic compounds where the functional group is -OH
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Alicyclic Hydrocarbon
a hydrocarbon with carbon atoms joined together in a ring structure, e.g. cyclohexane
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Alkali
a chemical that reacts with an acid and is insoluble in water releasing hydroxide OH- (aq) ions
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Alkanes
a homologous series of saturated hydrocarbons - CnH2n+2 which differ by CH2
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Alkenes
a homologous series of unsaturated hydrocarbons - CnH2n which differ by CH2
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Amount of Substance
the quantity whose unit is the mole - counting atoms
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Amphoteric Substances
substances that can react as both acids and bases, e.g. water
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Aliphatic Hydrocarbon
a hydrocarbon where carbon atoms are joined in straight or branched chains
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Anhydrous
a substance that contains no water molecules
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Anion
a negatively charged ion
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Anomalies
results that do not fit the overall trend of the data
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Anomalous
results that do not follow the general pattern of the data
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Aqueous
a solution in which the solvent is water - (aq)
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Aromatic Hydrocarbon
a hydrocarbon which contains at least 1 benzene ring
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Atom
the smallest object that retains properties of an element - electrons and a nucleus (protons and neutrons)
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Atomic (Proton) Number
the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
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Atomic Orbital
a region of space where it is likely that you will find electrons - each orbital can hold up to 2 electrons, with opposite spin
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Atomic Radius
a measure of the size of its atoms, usually the mean or typical distance from the nucleus to the boundary of the surrounding cloud of electrons
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Atomic Structure
a positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged electrons in orbitals - varies with different elements - zero overall charge
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Average Bond Enthalpy
the mean energy needed for 1 mole of a given type of gaseous bonds to undergo homolytic fission
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Avogadro Constant
the number of atoms per mole of the carbon-12 isotope (6.02 x 10^23 mol^-1)
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Base
a chemical that can react with acids and is a proton (H+) acceptor
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Biodegradable Materials
are affected by the action of microorganisms and environmental conditions leading to decomposition
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Biological Catalyst
catalysts found in nature = enzymes - very important! - help to catalyse reactions in the body
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Bioplastics
materials made from a renewable sources that are biodegradable
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Boltzmann Distribution
the distribution of energies of molecules at a particular temperature - graph
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Bond Angle
the angle that is formed between two adjacent bonds on the same atom
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Bonded Pair
a pair of electrons that have been shared between two chemically bonded atoms
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Bonding Region
the space where an electron can be found in a bond
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Carbonyls
organic molecule which contains the C=O functional group
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Carboxylic Acids
an organic acid containing a carboxyl functional group - COOH
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Calorimetry
the quantitative study of energy change in a chemical reaction
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Catalyst
a substance that increases the rate of reaction without being used up in the process
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Categoric Variable
a qualitative description of a variable
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Cation
a positively charged ion
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CFCs - Chloroflurocarbons
class of organic compounds which contain chlorine and fluorine - inert - non-toxic to humans
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Chemical Energy
a special form of potential energy stored in chemical bonds
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Cis-Trans Isomerism
a type of E/Z isomerism where two substituent groups attached to each carbon atom of the C=C is the same
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Collision Theory
a model to help understand and make predictions about how changing temperature, pressure, concentration, surface area or catalyst may change the rate of reaction of a chemical change
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Complete Combustion
the oxidising of a fuel in a plentiful supply of air (oxygen)
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Compound
a substance formed from two or more chemically bonded elements in a fixed ratio, usually shown by a chemical formula
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Concentration of a Solution
the amount of solute, in mol, dissolved per 1dm3 (1000cm3) of solution
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Concordant Results
values that are close to each other and therefore represent reliable quantitative data
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Continuous Variable
a measured value which could be any number
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Control Variable
a factor that you must keep constant between experimental tests so that you can compare results
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Coordinate Bond/Dative Covalent Bond
a bond formed by a shared pair of electrons that has been provided by one of the bonding atoms only
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Covalent Bond
a bond formed by a shared pair of electrons between the nuclei of the bonding atoms
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Curly Arrows
model the flow of electron pairs during reaction mechanisms
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D-Orbital
a region within an atom that can hold up to two electrons, with opposite spin
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Dehydration
a chemical reaction where a water molecule is eliminated from an organic compound
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Delocalised Electrons (e-)
electrons that are shared between more than two atoms - metallic bonding
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Dependent Variable
the variable that you observe and measure in an experiment, e.g. colour
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Diatomic Molecule
molecules composed only of two atoms of either the same or different chemical elements
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Dilute
the process of decreasing the concentration of a solute in solution, usually simply by mixing with more solvent without adding any more solute
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Discrete Variables
variables that can only be particular defined numbers, e.g. age
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Displacement Reaction
a reaction in which a more reactive element takes the place of a less reactive element in a compound
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Displayed Formula
a formula which shows the relative positions of atoms and the bonds between them
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Disproportionation
the oxidation and reduction of the same element in a redox reaction
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Distillation
a technique used to separate miscible liquids or solutions
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Dot-and-Cross Diagrams
used to model the electrons in chemical bonding
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Dot Formulae
gives the ratio between the number of compound molecules and the number of water molecules within the crystalline structure
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Dynamic Equilibrium
the equilibrium that exists in a closed system when the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction and all the chemicals have their concentrations maintained
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E/Z Isomerism
a type of stereoisomerism that is caused by the restricted rotation around the double C=C bond in alkenes - two different groups are attached to each carbon atom
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Electrical Conductivity
the degree to which a specified material allows charge to be carried - ratio of the current density in the material to the electric field which causes the flow of current
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Electron
the smallest of the particles that make up the atom - negatively charged - the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons in each atom
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Electron Configuration
the arrangement of electrons in an atom or ion
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Electron Shielding
the repulsion between electrons in different inner shells - reduces the net attractive force from the positive nucleus on the outermost shell electrons
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Electronegativity
a measure of the attraction of an electron in a covalent bond
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Electrophile
an electron pair acceptor
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Element
a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical means - atoms have the same atomic number - the same number of protons in its nucleus as all other atoms
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Elimination
an organic chemical reaction in which one reactant forms two products - water is usually released
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Empirical Formula
the simplest whole number ratio of atoms of each element present in a compound
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Endothermic
a reaction in which the enthalpy of the products is greater than the enthalpy of the reactants, resulting in heat being taken in from the surroundings (+) (up)
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Enthalpy
the heat content that is stored in a chemical system
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Enthalpy Change of Combustion
the energy change that takes place when 1 mole of a substance is fully combusted
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Enthalpy Change of Formation
the energy change that takes place when 1 mole of a compound is formed from its constituent elements in their standard states under standard conditions
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Enthalpy Change of Neutralisation
the energy change associated with the formation of 1 mole of water from a neutralisation reaction, under standard conditions
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Enthalpy Change of Reaction
the energy change associated with a given reaction
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Enthalpy Cycle
a pictorial representation showing alternative routes between reactants and products
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Enthalpy Profile Diagram
a diagram of a reaction that allows you to compare the enthalpy of the reactants with the enthalpy of the products
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Equilibrium Constant - Kc
a measure of the position of equilibrium - ratio between reactants and products
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Equilibrium Law
Kc = [products]/[reactants] *remember to use number in front as a power in Kc equation!
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Ester
a functional group of - COO found in some organic molecules
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Esterification
the chemical reaction which forms an ester
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Exothermic
a reaction in which the enthalpy of the products is smaller than the enthalpy of the reactants, resulting in heat loss to the surroundings (-) (down)
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Experiment
an ordered set of practical steps, which are used to test the hypothesis
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Extraneous Variable
a factor that is not controlled or measured in an experiment but may cause error in the results
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False Positive
a chemical test when a positive result is produced but not due to the formation of the desired product (wrong)
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First Ionisation Energy
the energy required to remove one electron from each atom in one mole of gaseous atoms to form one mole of gaseous 1+ ions
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Fragmentation
the process in mass spectrometry that causes a positive ion to split into pieces, one of which is a positive fragment ion
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Functional Group
a group of atoms that is responsible for the characteristic chemical reactions of a compound, e.g. -COOH, -OH, C=O
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General Fomula
the simplest algebraic formula for a homologous series
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Giant Covalent Lattice
a 3D structure of atoms that are all bonded together by strong covalent bonds
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Giant Ionic Lattice
a 3D structure of oppositely charged ions, held together by strong electrostatic forces of ionic bonds
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Giant Metallic Lattice
a 3D structure of positive metal ions and delocalised electrons, bonded together by strong metallic bonds
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Global Warming
the increased average temperature of the planet and atmosphere - increasing CO2 concentration - climate change
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Gradient
the measure of the slope of a graph: straight line = choose two points on the line and divide the change in the y axis by the change in the x axis / curve = tangent
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Group
a column in the periodic table - similar chemical properties - atoms have same number of outer shell electrons
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Halogenation
an addition reaction when a halogen is added across the double C=C bond of an alkene
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Haloalkanes
a group of chemical compounds derived from alkanes containing one or more halogens
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Hess' Law
states that the enthalpy change in a chemical reaction is independent of the route it takes
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Heterogenous Catalysts
a catalysts used in a reaction which is in a different phases from the reactants, e.g. solid or liquid
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Heterolytic Fission
each bonding atom receives one electron from the bonded pair, forming two radicals (reactive)
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Homogenous Catalysts
a catalyst used in a reaction which is in the same phase as the reactant, e.g. solid or liquid
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Homologous Series
a series of organic compounds that have the same functional group with successive members differing by CH2
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Homolytic Fission
when one bonding atom receives both electrons from the bonding pair
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Hydrated
a crystalline compound containing water molecules
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Hydration
a reaction where water is a reactant in a chemical reaction
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Hydrocarbons
compounds that only contain hydrogen and carbon atoms
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Hydrogen Bond
a strong permanent dipole-dipole attraction between an electron deficient hydrogen atom (O-H/N-H/F-H) on one molecule, and a lone pair of electrons on a highly electronegative atom (O/N/F) on a different molecule
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Hydrogenation
an addition reaction where hydrogen is added across the double C=C bond of an alkene
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Hydrolysis
a chemical reaction in which water is a reactant (added) - e.g. alkali and acid hydrolysis
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Hypothesis
a prediction and explanation of the chemistry behind the prediction
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Incomplete Combustion
oxidising a fuel in a limited supply of air (oxygen)
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Independent Variable
the factor you change to determine its effect on another factor
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Infrared
region of the electromagnetic spectrum with wavelengths between 700nm - 300um - between visisble and microwaves - e.g. spectroscopy
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Infrared Spectroscopy
an analytical technique that utilises a substances behaviour on absorbing infrared radiation and produces a spectrum that can be used to identify certain functional groups, e.g. -OH, -COOH and C=O
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Intermolecular Force
an attractive force between neighbouring molecules or atoms
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Ion
a positively or negatively charged atom or (covalently bonded) group of atoms (molecular ion)
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Ionic Bond
the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions
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Ionisation
the process of an atom becoming an ion
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Isotopes
atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons
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Kilojoules
a measurement of energy - 1000J = 1kJ
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Law of Conservation of Energy
energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred from one place to another
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Le Chatelier's Principle
when a system in dynamic equilibrium is subjected to a change, the position of equilibrium will shift to minimise the change
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Line of Best Fit
shows the trend in plotted points - straight line, curve of any "s" shape
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London (dispersion) Forces
attractive forces between induced dipoles in neighbouring molecules
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Lone Pair
an outer shell pair of electrons that is not involved in chemical bonding - extra repulsion - bond angle
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Margin of Error
shows the range that a value lies within
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Mass (nucleon) Number
the number of particles (protons and neutrons) in the nucleus
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Mass Spectrometry
an analytical chemistry technique that helps identify the amount and type of chemicals present in a sample by measuring the mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) and abundance of gas-phase ions - M+ ion peak = Mr
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Metallic Bonding
the electrostatic attraction between positive metal ions (cations) and delocalised electrons
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Meta Study/Meta Analysis
a type of secondary research - uses data from a variety of studies - answer new aim - mathematical approach, e.g. statistics - social science
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Method
a step-by-step detailed explanation of how to complete an experiment
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Molar Gas Volume
the volume per mole of gas - dm3mol-1 - at rtp - molar gas volume = 24dm3 mol-1
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Molar Mass - M
the mass per mole of a substance - gmol-1
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Mole
the amount of any substance containing as many particles as there are carbon atoms in 12g of the carbon 12 isotope
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Molecular Formula
the number and type of atoms of each element in a compound
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Molecular Ion - M+
the positive ion formed in mass spectrometry when a molecule loses an electron - M+ peak = Mr of compound
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Molecule
a group of atoms held together by covalent bonds
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Monomers
small molecules that can be joined to make a polymer
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Multiple Covalent Bond
some non-metallic atoms can share more than one pair of electrons with another atom to form a multiple bond, e.g. double or triple bond
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Neutralisation
the reaction of an acid and base - produces water
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Neutron
a particle in the nuceus of an atom - identical in mass to a proton - carries no electrical charge
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Nomenclature
the naming system for compunds
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Nucleons
particles found in the nucleus of an atom (protons and neutrons)
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Nucleophiles
electron pair donor
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Nucleophilic Substitution
a chemical reaction in which an atom or group of atoms is exchanged for a nucleophile
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Organic Synthesis
a branch of chemistry which designs reactions to make a target molecule
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Outline
a summary of an experiment
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Oxidation
the loss of electrons - loss of hydrogen - gain of oxygen - increase in oxidation number
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Oxidising Agent
a reagent that oxidises (takes electrons from) another species and is itself reduced (OIL RIG)
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Ozone Layer
an area of high concentration of ozone - O3 - in the stratosphere
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P-Orbital
a region within which an atom can hold up to two electrons, with opposite spins
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Particle Model
a simplification of matter which can be used to explain observations and make predictions
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Percentage Error (%)
a mathematical waau to compare experimental value with the actual value
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Percentage Yield (%)
actual amount of product (mol) / theoretical amount of product (mol) x 100
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Period
a row of elements in the Periodic Table - trends in properties across a period
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Periodic Table
a tabular arrangement of the chemical elements - ordered by atomic number (number of protons in the nucleus) - electron configuration - chemical properties
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Periodicity
a regular periodic variation of properties of elements with atomic number and position in the Periodic Table
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Permanent Dipole
a small charge difference across a bond that results from a difference in the electronegativities of the bonded atoms
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Permanent Dipole-Dipole Interaction
a weak attractive force between permanent dipoles and permanent dipoles or induced dipoles in neighbouring polar molecules
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Photodegradable
capable of being decomposed by the action of light - sunlight
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Pi Bonds
sideways overlap of adjacent p-orbitals above and below the bonding carbon atoms
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Plan
a summary of the proposed experiment
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Polar Covalent Bond
a covalent bond that has a permanent dipole
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Polymer
a large, complex macromolecule made from small repeating units - monomers
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Precipitation Reaction
the formation of a solid from a solution during a chemical reaction - two aqueous solutions are mixed together
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Precision
the degree to which repeated values, collected under the same conditions in an experiments, show the same results
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Pressure
a measure of the force applied over a unit area
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Primary Alcohol
has the function group attached to a carbon atom with one alkyl group
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Primary Haloalkane
has the halogen on the end of the parent chain
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Principal Quantum Number (n)
a number representing the relative overall energy of each orbital, which increases with distance from the nucleus - sets of orbitals wirh the same n value are electron shells or energy levels
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Product
substances formed in a chemical reaction
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Proton
particle found in a nucleus of an atom with a positive charge = atomic number
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Qualitative Data
a description of what is being observed - e.g. colour - less reliable - bias
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Qualitative Test
a simple chemical test where observation can be used to identify a species
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Quantitative Data
a quantity (numerical value) of what is being observed - measuring equipment - more reliable, e.g. mean averages
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Quickfit
a selection of heat resistant glassware wit connectors that can be put in a variety of arrangements
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Radical
a highly reactive species with one or more unpaired electrons
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Radiation
the emission of energy as electromagnetic waves or as moving subatomic particles, especially high energy particles which cause ionisation
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Radical Substitution
an organic mechanism involving radicals where one or more atoms get exchanged
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Rate of Reaction
the change in concentration of a reactant or a product in a given time
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Reactants
a substance that takes part in and undergoes change during a reaction
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Reaction Mechanism
models which show clearly the movement of electron pairs in a reaction
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Recycling
collecting, sorting and processing of waste for a different use
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Redistillation
the purification of a liquid using multiple distillations
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Redox Reaction
a reaction in which both reduction and oxidation takes place
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Reducing Agent
a reagent that reduces (adds electrons to) another species and it is oxidised itself - loses electrons
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Reduction
the gain of electrons and hydrogen and loss of oxygen or a decrease in oxidation number
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Reflux
a technique used to stop reaction mixtures boiling away into the air - condense gas into liquid and return to mixture
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Relative Atomic Mass - Ar
the weighed mean mass of an atom of an element compared with 1/12 of th mass of an atom of carbon-12
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Relative Isotopic Mass
the mass of an atom of an isotope compared with 1/12 of the mass of an atom of carbon-12
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Reliable
results that are similar when they are repeated
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Repeating Unit
a specific arrangement of atoms that occurs in the structure over and over again - monomers make up a polymer
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Resolution
the smallest change in quantity being measured that can be observed
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S-Orbital
a spherical shaped region within an atom that can hold up to two electrons with opposite spins
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Salt
any chemical compound formed from an acid when an H+ ion from the acid has been replaced by a metal ion or another positive ion, often a metal or ammonium ion NH4+ - e.g. NaCl
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Saturated Compounds
compounds that have only single C-C bonds
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Saturated Organic Chemicals (compounds)
organic chemicals that have only single covalent bonds
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Saturation
the degree or extent to which a species is dissolved or absorbed compared with the maximum possible, usually expressed as a percentage
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Scatter Graphs
a method for expressing quantitative data - independent variable must be continuous and on x axis - dependent variable must be continuous and on y-axis
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Secondary Alcohol
has the functional group attached to a carbon atom with two alkyl groups
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Separating Funnel
a piece of equipment used to separate immiscible liquids
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Shell
a group of atomic orbitals with the same principal quantum number - n = energy level
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Sigma Bonds
direct overlap between orbitals on the bonding atoms
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Significant Figures
the numbers used to represent a quantity that have meaning
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Single Covalent Bonds
where atoms are bonded by one shared pair of electrons between nuclei
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Simple Molecular Lattice
a 3D structure of molecules held together by weak intermolecular forces
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Skeletal Formula
a simplified structural formula drawn by removing hydrogen atoms from alkyl chains
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Solubility
the property of a solid, liquid or gaseous chemical substance called solute to dissolve in a solid, liquid or gaseous solvent to form a homogenous solution of the solute in the solvent
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Species
any type of particle that takes part in a chemical reaction
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Specific Heat Capacity
the energy required to raise 1g of a substance by 1K
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Standard Condition
standard sets of conditions (temperature and pressure) for experimental measurements established to allow comparisons to be made between different sets of data - 100kPa, 298K, 1mol dm-3
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Standard Form
method for writing very small or very large numbers - x10 - direction and number of places the decimal point has moved
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Standard Solution
a solution of known concentration, e.g. titrations to determine unknown information about another substance
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Stereoisomers
organic compounds with the same molecular formula and structural formula but have different arrangements of atoms in space
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Stoichiometry
the molar relationship between the relative quantities of substances taking part in a reaction
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Structural Formula
the minimum detail to show the arrangement of atoms in a molecule
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Structural Isomers
compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formula
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Sub-Shell
a group of the same type of atomic orbital (s,p,d,f) within a shell - s = 2 electrons/p = 6 electrons/d = 10 electrons/f = 14 electrons
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Successive Ionisation
values thart are a measure of the energy required to remove each electron from the outer most shell in turn
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Survey
a type of primary research - sets out limits to observe something that is already happening
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Sustainability
chemical processes which minimise the use and generation of hazardous materials
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Synthetic Polymers
man-made polymers
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Table
a clear and structured way of recording information about an experiment
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Tertiary Alcohol
has the functional group attached to a carbon atom with three alkyl groups
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Thermodynamics
a branch of physical chemistry concerned with changes in the energy of chemical systems and surroundings
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Titrations
the dropwise addition of one solution of known concentration (titrant) to a known volume of another solution of unknown concentration umtil the reaction reaches an end point, often indicated by a colour change
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Unsaturated Organic Chemicals (compounds)
organic chemicals that contain at least one double C=C covalent bond
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Valid Experiment
provides information to test the aim of the experiment
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Van der Waals' Forces
a type of intermolecular bonding that includes permanent dipole-dipole bonding and induced dipole-dipole interactions (London forces)
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Variables
factors that can affect the outcome of an experiment
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Volatility
the tendency of a substance to vaporize
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Volume
the quantity of a 3D space occupied by a solid, liquid or gas
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Water of Crystallisation
water molecules that form an essential part of the crystalline strucure of a compound
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Weighing by Difference
a method used to accurately weigh the amount of material transferred - the mass of the container, e.g. crucible, is taken before and after the experiment and the difference between these values is the mass of the material transferred
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Yield
the amount of product obtained in a chemical reaction
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Card 2

Front

a chemical that is a proton (H+) donor and releases H+ (aq) in solution

Back

Acid

Card 3

Front

the minimum energy required to start a reaction by breaking bonds in the reactants

Back

Preview of the back of card 3

Card 4

Front

identifies the purpose of an investigation

Back

Preview of the back of card 4

Card 5

Front

a group of organic compounds where the functional group is -OH

Back

Preview of the back of card 5
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