Cell ultrastructure

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What is the function of the plasma membrane?
To regulate the movement of substances in and out of the cell
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What is the function of the cell wall?
To support the cell
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What is the function of the nucleus?
To control the cells activities
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What is the nuclear envelope?
A double membrane
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What is the function of the lysosomes?
Contain digestive enzymes. Destroy pathogens in the immune system
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What is the function of the ribsomomes?
To produce proteins
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How is the rough endoplasmic recticulum different to the smooth endoplasmic recticiulum?
It is studded with ribosomes
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What is the function of the rough endoplasmic recticulum?
Folds and processes proteins
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What is the function of the smooth endoplasmic recticium?
Synthesises lipids
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What is the function of the vesicles?
Transports substances in and out of the cell
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What is the function of the golgi apparaturs?
Produces lysosomes and processes and packages new lipids and proteins
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What is the function of the mitochondria?
ATP is produced, energy is released
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What is the function of the chloroplasts?
Where photosynthesis takes palce
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What is the function of the centriholes?
Involved in the separation of chromosomes during cell division.
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What is the function of the cilia?
Microtubules allow cilia to move. This movement is used by the cell to move substances along the cell surface.
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What is the function of the flagellum?
propels things forward
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What are the functions of the cytoskeleton?
strengthens and supports the cell, maintains the shape, transports substances and organelles around the cell.
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Give an example of a prokaryotic cell and a eukaryotic cell?
prokaryotic= bacteria. Eukaryotic= Animal cell
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State three differences between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells?
prokaryotic= smaller, DNA is circular, no nucleus. Eukaryotic-larger, DNA is linear, nucleus is present
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What is magnification?
How much bigger the image is compared to the size of the specimen.
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What is the equation for working out the magnification?
image size divided by the object size
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What is meant by resolution
How well a microscope can distinguish between two points that are close together
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Why do we stain samples before we view them under a microscope?
So that they are more visible. Some parts of the stain will take the stain up more than others resulting in an increase in contrast.
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What type of microscope has the lowest magnification and resolution?
Light microscope
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How do transmission electon miroscopes work?
Uses electromagnets to focus a beam of electrons which is transmitted throughout the specimen to produce 2D images.
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How do scanning electron microscopes work?
Scans a beam of electrons which is transmitted to produce 3D images.
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How do laser scanning confocal microscopes work?
The laser beam is focused down a beam splitter and aimed towarsd the specimen. The laser hits the beam and some of the light is directed back to the specimen.
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What type of microscope has the highest resolution and magnification?
TEM
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What three elements are carbohydrates made up of?
Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen
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What is meant by a hexose monosaccharide?
Made up of 6 carbon atoms
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What is meant by a pentose monosaccharide?
made up of five carbon atoms
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What is a dissacharide?
2 monosaccharides joined together
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What is Lactose made up of?
Galactose and beta glucose
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What is starch the main energy storage for?
Plants
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What is Glycogen the main energy storage for?
Animals
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What properties does Glycogen have?
Branched= glucose can be released quickly and is good for storage
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What is cellulose the main component for and what type of glucose is it made from?
cell walls. Beta-glucose
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What is the structure of triglyceride?
One Gylcerol molecule and three fatty acids
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What is a saturated fatty acid?
No double bond between carbon atoms
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What is an unsaturated fatty acid?
At least one double bond between carbon atoms
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What is the structure of a phospholipid?
1 Gylcerol mole ule, 2 fatty acids and a phospahte group
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Is the phosphate group hydrohphobic or hydrophilic?
Hydrophilic
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What is the function of cholesterol?
Helps strengthen membrane by fitting in between phospholipids and binds to the hydrophobic tails so that the phospholipids pack more closely together making the membrane less fluid and more rigid.
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In proteins what does COOH stand for?
The carboxyl group
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What does h2N stand for?
The amino group
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What is the reverse reaction to condensation?
Hydrolosis. When water reacts with the glycosidic bond, breaking it apart.
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What are the four structures of proteins?
Primary, Secondary,Tertiary and Quaternary
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What is the primary structure?
Sequence of amino acids
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What is the secondary structrue?
The amino acids coils into an alpha helix or beta pleated sheet.
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What is the tertiary structure?
Amino acids are coiled further. Introduction of bonds and interactions.
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What is the Quaternary structure?
The arrangement of polypeptide chains
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Explain the hydrophobic and hydrophilic reactions in the tertiary structure?
The hydrophobic R groups tend to clump together to the centre of the bilayer and the hydrophilic R groups are pushed to the outside.
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What are globular proteins like?
round,soluble, compact
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What are fibrous proteins like?
Tough, rope shaped and insoluble
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Give three examples of Globular proteins?
Haemoglobin, insulin and amylase
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Give three examples of fibrous proteins?
Keratin, Collagen and Elastin
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What are ions?
An atom or molecule with an electric charge.
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What is a cation? give an example
An ion with a positive charge. E.G- Sodium
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What is an anion?give an example
An ion with a negative charge. E.G- nitrate
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What is an inorganic ion?
One that doesn't contain carbon
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What is the biochemical test for iodine?
Add starch ( blue-black colour)
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What is the biochemical test for a reducing sugar?
Add benedicts solution and boil gently ( brick red colour)
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What is the biochemcal test for a non-reducing sugar?
Add dilute hydrochloric acid, boil gently then add sodium hydrogencarbonate.
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What is the biochemical test for a protein?
Add sodium hydroxide then copper sulfate solution ( Violet)
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What is the biochemical test for an emulison?
Add ethanol to mixture, shake it and then pour it into water ( milky while colour)
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What is chromatography used for?
To separate stuff in a mixture
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What is the mobile phase?
Where the molecules can move
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What is the stationary phase?
Molecules cant move
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How do you work out the Rf value in chromatography?
Distance traveled by spot, divided by distance traveled by solvent.
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What does a catalyst do?
Speeds up a reaction without being used up in it itself.
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What is the lock and key model?
Active site fits substrate perfectly, like a lock and key.
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Why is the fluid mosaic model called what it is?
The fluid part is because phospholipds are constantly moving and mosiac because of how they are arraged
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What does a water molecule look like?
2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen
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What is hydrogen bonding?
The slightly negatively charged-oxygen atoms attract the slightly-positive charged-hydrogen atoms of other water molecules
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Explain water's high specific heat capacity...
A lot of energy is needed to raise the temperature of 1g of a substance by 1 oc. It takes a lot of energy to heat water up which is good because it means water doesn't experience any rapid temperature changes
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Why is it good that water doesn't experience rapid temperature changes for aquatic organisms?
So they have a stable habitat.
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Explain water having a high latent heat of evaporation...
It takes a lot of energy to break the hydrogen bonds between water molecules- a lot of energy is used up when water evaporates.
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Why is high latent heat of evaporation useful for living organisms?
Because it means that water is great for cooling them. When they get hot, they sweat and then it evaporates, leaving the skin cool.
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Explain water having a lower density when solid?
Water molecules are held further apart in ice than they are in water because each water molecule forms four hydrogen bonds to other water molecules creating a lattice shape. The ice will the float.
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Why is water having a lower density when solid a good thing?
Because it means that the ice creates an insulating layer at the top of the water and the organism underneath can still survive without freezing.
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What is menat by water being cohesive?
All the water molecules stick together which helps the water to low and then help transporting substances.
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What is meant by water being polar?
The slightly positive end of one water molecule will be attracted to the negaitev ion and the slightly negative end of a water molecule will be attracted to the positive ion.
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What are macromolecules?
Molecules with a relatively large molecular mass.
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What is condensation?
When a hydrogen atom on one monosaccharide bonds to a hydroxyl (OH) molecule on another, releasing a molecule of water.
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What type of glucose makes up starch and glycogen?
Alpha-glucose
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What is meant by a disulhide bond?
When two molecules of the amino acid cysteine comes together,the sulfur atom in one cysteine bonds to a sulfur in another, forming a disulphide bond.
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What is meant by a conjugated protein?
A protein with a non protein group attached
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What do cations usually end in?
' ium '
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What do anions usually end in?
' ide' or 'ate'
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What is the thery bheind the 'induced fit' moel?
Development from the lock and key model. Active site changes slightly to fit the substrate.
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What is the Q10 value?
Measures how much the rate of a reaction changes when the temperature is raised by 10 degrees.
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If the Q10 value is 2, for example, what does this suggest about the rate?
It doubles
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Is he centre of the bilayer usually hydrophobic or hydrophilic? why?
Hydrophobic, so that water soluble substances can't pass through
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As well as cholesterol what do glycoproteins and glycolipids do?
Stabilise the membrane
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Exaplain what happens to the membrane when the temperature is below 0 degrees?
Phospholipids don't have much energy so don't move around much and are therefore packed closely together. Carrier proteins and channel proteins may denature ad ice crystals may form.
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Explain what happens top the membrane when the temperature is between 0 degrees and 45 degrees
Phospholipids move around more because they have more energy, so they aren't packed as closely together. This increases the permeability of the membrane.
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Explain what happens to the membrane when the temperature is above 45 degrees
The phospholipid bilayer begins to break down and channel; and carrier proteins begin to denature so they cannot control what enters or leaves the cell. This increases permeability of the membrane
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What can happen if solvents dissolve in the lipids in cell membrane?
It can loose its structure
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How does cell signalling work?
A cell releases a molecule (e.g- a hormone) which then travels (e.g- in the blood) to another cell. This is then detected because the molecule binds to the receptors on the cell membrane
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What is menat by cell signalling?
Cells communicating between one another.
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How do drugs work?
by binding to receptors in cell membranes. They either trigger a response or prevent it from working by blocking the receptor.
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What is diffusion?
Net movement of particles from an area of higher concentration an area of lower concentration.
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Is diffusion a passive or active porces? Why?
Passive because it doesn't require energy.
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What is facilitated diffusion?
Net movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration but also uses carrier and channel proteins to help the big molecules diffuse.
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What is osmosis?
Net movemetn of water molecules across a partially permebale membrane from an area of higher water potential to an area of lower water potential
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What is meant by water potential? What is waters water potentia?
Tendency of water molecules to diffuse. Water = 0
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Is osmosis a passive or active process?
Passive
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What is active trasport?
Movement of molecules against a concentration gradient.
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Is active transport an active or passive process?
Active
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What is exocytosis?
Movement of molecules out of the cell. vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane and releases its contents.
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Is exocytosis an active or passive process?
Active
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What is endocytosis?
Movement of large molecules into a cell. The plasma membrane surrounds a substance and then pinches off to form a vesicle inside the cell.
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Is endocytosis an active or passive process?
Active
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What factors effect the rate of diffusion?
Temperature, surface area, concentration gradient and thickness of exchange surface.
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What is mitosis neded for?
Growth, repair and asexual reproduction
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What are the four stages of mitosis?
Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase ans Telophase
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What happens in prophase?
Chromosomes condense and become visible.
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What happens in metaphase?
The pairs of sister chormatds lie up along the equator of the cell, attached to the spindle by their centromeres.
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What happens in anaphase?
Spindle contats and pulls the pairs of sister chromatids to opposite poles, centromeres first.
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What happens in telophase?
The nuclear envelope forms around each new set of chromosomes.
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What is cytokinesis?
The division of the cytoplasm
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How does the cytoplasm in animal cells divide?
A cleavage furrow forms which divids the cell membrane and results in two genitally identical daughter cells
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What are gametes?
Sex cells
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Where does meiosis occur?
In the reproductive organs
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Ho many divisions occur in meiosis?
2 = meiosis 1 and meiosis 2
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What does meiosis do to the diploid number of chrodmsoems?
Halves them = they are then haploid.
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What are stem cells?
Cells that are unspecialised.
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What is meant by undifferentiated?
When a cell becomes specialised for its job.
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What are erythrocytes? Explain their staructue
Red blood cells. Thye have biconcave shape which gives them a large surface area and they have no nucleus which allows more room for haemoglobin.
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What are neutrophils? Explain their structure
White blood cells that defend the body against disease. They have a flexible shape so they can engulf the foreign pathogen.
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Other cards in this set

Card 2

Front

What is the function of the cell wall?

Back

To support the cell

Card 3

Front

What is the function of the nucleus?

Back

Preview of the front of card 3

Card 4

Front

What is the nuclear envelope?

Back

Preview of the front of card 4

Card 5

Front

What is the function of the lysosomes?

Back

Preview of the front of card 5
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